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Epic poetry In poetry, an epic is a lengthy narrative poem typically about the extraordinary deeds of extraordinary characters who, in dealings with gods or other superhuman forces, gave shape to the mortal universe for their descendants. With regard t ...
, or ''tuuli'' in Mongolian, is an important genre of Mongol oral
literature Literature is any collection of Writing, written work, but it is also used more narrowly for writings specifically considered to be an art form, especially novels, Play (theatre), plays, and poetry, poems. It includes both print and Electroni ...
, with features reminiscent of Germanic
alliterative verse In meter (poetry), prosody, alliterative verse is a form of poetry, verse that uses alliteration as the principal device to indicate the underlying Metre (poetry), metrical structure, as opposed to other devices such as rhyme. The most commonly s ...
. The two most well-known epics are the '' Jangar'' and the '' Geser''. These ''tuuli'' are commonly sung with instruments such as the ''
Morin khuur The ''morin khuur'' (), also known as the horsehead fiddle, is a traditional Mongolian bowed stringed instrument. It is one of the most important musical instruments of the Mongol people, and is considered a symbol of the nation of Mongolia. ...
'' (horse-head fiddle) and the ''
Tovshuur The ''tovshuur'', also known as ''topshur'' or ''topshuur'' ( Mongolian Cyrillic: ; ) is a two- or three-stringed lute played by the Western Mongolian (Oirats) tribes called the Altai Urianghais, the Altais, Tuvans, and Khalkha peoples. The top ...
'' (lute). Most epics deal with topics of the history of the Mongols, their ideal worlds and heroes, and the acquisition of new lands. Epics are performed mostly as celebrations or during important events. Mongol epic poetry has, as of 2009, been on the
UNESCO The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO ) is a List of specialized agencies of the United Nations, specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) with the aim of promoting world peace and International secur ...
List of Intangible Cultural Heritage in Need of Urgent Safeguarding UNESCO established its Lists of Intangible Cultural Heritage with the aim of ensuring better protection of important intangible cultural heritages worldwide and the awareness of their significance.Compare: This list is published by the Intergover ...
.


History

Epics were, until the 17th century, not put in writing. Although epics are still passed down orally, they have been written down, and some performers add to their own performances through reading the written versions of the epics. Epics such as the ''Geser'' were passed to the Mongols through writing (the first edition of the epic in Mongolian being published in the 18th century) and then Mongolized to become Mongol epics. The ''Jangar'', too, took its current form sometime in the 18th century with the
Kalmyks Kalmyks (), archaically anglicised as Calmucks (), are the only Mongolic ethnic group living in Europe, residing in the easternmost part of the European Plain. This dry steppe area, west of the lower Volga River, known among the nomads as ...
. During the
Second World War World War II or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War II, Allies and the Axis powers. World War II by country, Nearly all of the wo ...
, the government of the
Soviet Union The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR), commonly known as the Soviet Union, was a List of former transcontinental countries#Since 1700, transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 until Dissolution of the Soviet ...
promoted the ''Geser'' as a way to foster patriotism among
Buryats The Buryats are a Mongolic ethnic group native to southeastern Siberia who speak the Buryat language. They are one of the two largest indigenous groups in Siberia, the other being the Yakuts. The majority of the Buryats today live in their ti ...
. However, in the years following the war until the death of
Joseph Stalin Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin (born Dzhugashvili; 5 March 1953) was a Soviet politician and revolutionary who led the Soviet Union from 1924 until Death and state funeral of Joseph Stalin, his death in 1953. He held power as General Secret ...
in 1953, the epic tradition was attacked as "feudal" and anti-Russian. Mongolia under the
Mongolian People's Republic The Mongolian People's Republic (MPR) was a socialist state that existed from 1924 to 1992, located in the historical region of Outer Mongolia. Its independence was officially recognized by the Nationalist government of Republic of China (1912� ...
suppressed traditional Mongolian culture, and Mongolia experienced rapid globalization, urbanization, and modernization. However, this came at the cost of decreasing popular interest in epics, leading to less experienced epic singers and less performances in the long-run. In order to counteract this, the Mongolian government passed the National Safeguarding Plan of the Mongolian Epic in 2011. As such, they began to collaborate with NGOs to hold epic performance competitions, give epic singers awards, recognition and money, and promote social awareness through including the epic tradition in modern media.


Epic centers

The general consensus among Chinese scholars of Mongol epics is that there are three main "epic centers" within the boundaries of China, each with their own epic traditions. The first is the Bargu Epic Center, centered around the Bargu Mongols in northeastern
Inner Mongolia Inner Mongolia, officially the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, is an Autonomous regions of China, autonomous region of China. Its border includes two-thirds of the length of China's China–Mongolia border, border with the country of Mongolia. ...
. Bargu epics focus on the struggles of herdsmen or hunters against monsters, and are typically very short. There are no professional singers among the Bargu, and the epics are passed down through amateurs. The second is the Oirat Epic Center, centered around the
Oirat Mongols Oirats (; ) or Oirds ( ; ), formerly known as Eluts and Eleuths ( or ; zh, 厄魯特, ''Èlǔtè'') are the westernmost group of Mongols, whose ancestral home is in the Altai region of Siberia, Xinjiang and western Mongolia. The first docume ...
and
Chahar Mongols The Chahars (Khalkha Mongolian: Цахар, Tsahar; ) are a subgroup of Mongols that speak Chakhar Mongolian and predominantly live in southeastern Inner Mongolia, China. The Chahars were originally one of estates of Kublai Khan located around ...
. Among the epics of this center is the Epic of Jangar. While base motifs and themes are shared with Bargu epics, the Oirat epics are typically more complicated, longer, and reflect the historical situation of the
Dzungar Khanate The Dzungar Khanate ( Mongolian: ), also known as the Zunghar Khanate or Junggar Khanate, was an Inner Asian khanate of Oirat Mongol origin. At its greatest extent, it covered an area from southern Siberia in the north to present-day Kyrgyz ...
- the epics feature views influenced by
Buddhism Buddhism, also known as Buddhadharma and Dharmavinaya, is an Indian religion and List of philosophies, philosophical tradition based on Pre-sectarian Buddhism, teachings attributed to the Buddha, a wandering teacher who lived in the 6th or ...
, as well as a more modern view of the relationship between nations, their leaders, and their people. Unlike the Bargu Epic Center, the Oirat Epic Center has professional singers (called ''tuulchi'' or ''Jianggarchi''), known for their ability to sing the Epic of Jangar. The third epic center is the Horchin Epic Center, centered around the Horchin Mongols. Horchin epics are distinct from other epics in that they typically include non-combatant protagonists (sending others to fight the antagonist/monster for them), named monsters, and a more unbalanced power dynamic between the hero and the monster. Marriage is also not common within Horchin narratives. Much like the Oirat epics, the Horchin epics also have Buddhist ideas, symbols and themes.


Narrative structure

According to Walther Heissig, Mongol epics have three hundred motifs, grouped into fifteen groups. Mongol epics typically go through the unnatural birth of the hero, his marriage, and his struggle against the monster (or an antagonistic kingdom). Chao identifies two main patterns found in every Mongol epic - fighting and courtship. These can be broken up into sub-patterns - for fighting, heroes can be fighting either for revenge or possessions, while for courtship, the marriage can be either from bride-capture, competition, or arrangement by parents. Heissig categorized epics into six main variations: * ''The courting epic'': The hero, in trying to acquire a bride, faces challenges on the way represented by the monster. * ''The epic of recovery of lost possessions'': The hero fights to regain what has been stolen by him by monsters. * ''The mythicized epic'': The hero fights to restore order. This includes the Epic of King Geser. * ''The power-delegating epic'': Multiple heroes, sent by a ruler to challenge a threat. This includes the Epic of Jangar. * ''Composite ritualized epic'': Epic sung to ward off a monster. The origin of the protagonist archetype is disputed - there has been an argument that every epic hero is a version of
Genghis Khan Genghis Khan (born Temüjin; August 1227), also known as Chinggis Khan, was the founder and first khan (title), khan of the Mongol Empire. After spending most of his life uniting the Mongols, Mongol tribes, he launched Mongol invasions and ...
, but this has been disputed, as many Mongol epics do not include historical fact and some even shy away from naming geographical locations. The main antagonist, the monster (or ''Manggu''), is always a multi-headed creature that steals something from the hero. The stories and interactions between these characters are black-and-white, with binary oppositions between good and bad. Chao traces this back to the traditional steppe religion of
Tengriism Tengrism (also known as Tengriism, Tengerism, or Tengrianism) is a belief-system originating in the Eurasian Steppe, Eurasian steppes, based on shamanism and animism. It generally involves the titular sky god Tengri. According to some scholars, ...
. In addition to the protagonist and antagonist, there is the protagonist's horse - the protagonist shares a special bond with his horse, as they are often born at the same time (in cases where they are not, the birth of one prophesizes the birth of another) - and thus serves as an important companion to the protagonist. Horses also are imbued with the power of speech and the ability to predict the future. The characters and items within these epics are normally subject to extreme hyperbole.


Performance

Epics are normally sung through
alliterative verse In meter (poetry), prosody, alliterative verse is a form of poetry, verse that uses alliteration as the principal device to indicate the underlying Metre (poetry), metrical structure, as opposed to other devices such as rhyme. The most commonly s ...
in a form close to
couplets In poetry, a couplet ( ) or distich ( ) is a pair of successive lines that rhyme and have the same metre. A couplet may be formal (closed) or run-on (open). In a formal (closed) couplet, each of the two lines is end-stopped, implying that there ...
. Depending on the epic center, performers use different instruments, such as the ''
Morin khuur The ''morin khuur'' (), also known as the horsehead fiddle, is a traditional Mongolian bowed stringed instrument. It is one of the most important musical instruments of the Mongol people, and is considered a symbol of the nation of Mongolia. ...
'' and ''
Tovshuur The ''tovshuur'', also known as ''topshur'' or ''topshuur'' ( Mongolian Cyrillic: ; ) is a two- or three-stringed lute played by the Western Mongolian (Oirats) tribes called the Altai Urianghais, the Altais, Tuvans, and Khalkha peoples. The top ...
''. Oirat performers in particular sing in a special voice called ''khäälkh''. According to traditional beliefs, the performance of epics is a powerful act that can have supernatural effects. Thus, the performance of the epic is highly respected and not respecting the performance would, according to tradition, lead to negative impacts on the surrounding environment. Traditionally, too, women have been banned from performing epics. However, in more recent years, these restrictions based on traditional belief have become more loose.


Different genres

Another differing genre of Mongol oral literature is found in the hero-tale. The hero-tale, while similar to the epic, has some key differences - it is not sung, but told without a melody by amateurs. The scope, too, is much smaller, and the language used is colloquial, unlike the more antiquated language of the epics. Additionally, there are the "tales of the fiddle" or "chapbook tales" (''quγur-un üliger'' and ''bengsen-ü üliger'', respectively), performed using the horse-head fiddle. These tales were created in the eastern parts of the lands in which the Mongols live, such as in
Inner Mongolia Inner Mongolia, officially the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, is an Autonomous regions of China, autonomous region of China. Its border includes two-thirds of the length of China's China–Mongolia border, border with the country of Mongolia. ...
. Unlike the tradition-bound epics, the tales of the fiddle were for entertainment only. They drew their material from both traditional epics and foreign novels from across Asia that had been introduced to the Mongols, such as '' The Water Margin'', ''
Romance of the Three Kingdoms ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' () is a 14th-century historical novel attributed to Luo Guanzhong. It is set in the turbulent years towards the end of the Han dynasty and the Three Kingdoms period in Chinese history, starting in 184 AD and ...
'', and '' Thirty-Two Wooden Men''.


References


Citations


Bibliography

Books * Journal articles * * * Websites * {{cite web , url=https://ich.unesco.org/en/USL/mongol-tuuli-mongolian-epic-00310 , title=Mongol Tuuli, Mongolian epic , author= , date= , website= , publisher=UNESCO , access-date=27 May 2021 , ref={{harvid, UNESCO Mongolian literature Epic poetry Oral literature Oral tradition Culture of Mongolia