The Molokans ( rus,
молокан, p=məlɐˈkan or , "dairy-eater") are a Russian
Spiritual Christian sect that evolved from
Eastern Orthodoxy
Eastern Orthodoxy, otherwise known as Eastern Orthodox Christianity or Byzantine Christianity, is one of the three main Branches of Christianity, branches of Chalcedonian Christianity, alongside Catholic Church, Catholicism and Protestantism ...
in the
East Slavic lands. Their traditions, especially
dairy
A dairy is a place where milk is stored and where butter, cheese, and other dairy products are made, or a place where those products are sold. It may be a room, a building, or a larger establishment. In the United States, the word may also des ...
consumption during Christian fasts, did not conform to those of the
Russian Orthodox Church
The Russian Orthodox Church (ROC; ;), also officially known as the Moscow Patriarchate (), is an autocephaly, autocephalous Eastern Orthodox Church, Eastern Orthodox Christian church. It has 194 dioceses inside Russia. The Primate (bishop), p ...
, and they were regarded as heretics (). The term is an
exonym
An endonym (also known as autonym ) is a common, name for a group of people, individual person, geographical place, language, or dialect, meaning that it is used inside a particular group or linguistic community to identify or designate them ...
used by their
Orthodox neighbors. Members tend to identify themselves as Spiritual Christians (, ).
The specific beliefs and practices varied sharply between the various sects of Molokans. Some built chapels for worship, kept sacraments, and revered saints and icons, while others (like the
Ikonobortsy, "icon-wrestlers") discarded these practices in the pursuit of
individual approaches to scripture. In general, they rejected the institutionalized formalism of Orthodoxy and denominations with similar doctrines in favor of more emphasis on
"Original Christianity" as they understood it. They emphasized
spirituality
The meaning of ''spirituality'' has developed and expanded over time, and various meanings can be found alongside each other. Traditionally, spirituality referred to a religious process of re-formation which "aims to recover the original shape o ...
and spiritual practice; such sacramental practices as water baptism have been permitted only as tangible signs and symbols of more important spiritual truths.
Similar to
Presbyterian
Presbyterianism is a historically Reformed Protestant tradition named for its form of church government by representative assemblies of elders, known as "presbyters". Though other Reformed churches are structurally similar, the word ''Pr ...
s among Protestants, and considered heretical by the Orthodox Church, they elect a
council
A council is a group of people who come together to consult, deliberate, or make decisions. A council may function as a legislature, especially at a town, city or county/shire level, but most legislative bodies at the state/provincial or natio ...
of dominant
elders who preserve a sort of
apostolic succession
Apostolic succession is the method whereby the Christian ministry, ministry of the Christian Church is considered by some Christian denominations to be derived from the Twelve Apostles, apostles by a continuous succession, which has usually been ...
in their view. Molokans had some practices similar to the European
Quakers
Quakers are people who belong to the Religious Society of Friends, a historically Protestantism, Protestant Christian set of Christian denomination, denominations. Members refer to each other as Friends after in the Bible, and originally ...
and
Mennonites
Mennonites are a group of Anabaptism, Anabaptist Christianity, Christian communities tracing their roots to the epoch of the Radical Reformation. The name ''Mennonites'' is derived from the cleric Menno Simons (1496–1561) of Friesland, part of ...
, such as
pacifism
Pacifism is the opposition to war or violence. The word ''pacifism'' was coined by the French peace campaigner Émile Arnaud and adopted by other peace activists at the tenth Universal Peace Congress in Glasgow in 1901. A related term is ...
, communal organization, spiritual meetings, and sub-groupings, but they arose in Russia together with the
Doukhobors
The Doukhobors ( Canadian spelling) or Dukhobors (; ) are a Spiritual Christian ethnoreligious group of Russian origin. They are known for their pacifism and tradition of oral history, hymn-singing, and verse. They reject the Russian Ortho ...
and Sabbatarians (also known as
Subbotniks
Subbotniks ( rus, Субботники, p=sʊˈbotnʲɪkʲɪ, "Sabbatarians") is a common name for adherents of Russians, Russian religious movements that split from Sabbatarianism, Sabbatarian sects in the late 18th century.
The majority o ...
) and similar Spiritual Christian movements of
Duhovnye Kristyanye and Ikonobortsy. They migrated into central Russia and Ukraine around the same time. As such, the Molokans have been compared to certain kinds of Protestants (such as Anabaptists and Baptists) because they have multiple similar aspects since they reject the Orthodox priesthood and icons, have their own presbyters, hold the Bible as their main guide and interpret the sacraments "spiritually". They are thus in many ways similar to
Anabaptist
Anabaptism (from Neo-Latin , from the Greek language, Greek : 're-' and 'baptism'; , earlier also )Since the middle of the 20th century, the German-speaking world no longer uses the term (translation: "Re-baptizers"), considering it biased. ...
and
Quaker
Quakers are people who belong to the Religious Society of Friends, a historically Protestant Christian set of denominations. Members refer to each other as Friends after in the Bible, and originally, others referred to them as Quakers ...
Christians.
Formation and development
11th–14th centuries CE & origins of milk-drinking during Lent
There are approximately 200
fasting
Fasting is the act of refraining from eating, and sometimes drinking. However, from a purely physiological context, "fasting" may refer to the metabolic status of a person who has not eaten overnight (before "breakfast"), or to the metabolic sta ...
days —especially the
Great Fast
Great Lent, or the Great Fast (Greek language, Greek: Μεγάλη Τεσσαρακοστή, ''Megali Tessarakosti'' or Μεγάλη Νηστεία, ''Megali Nisteia'', meaning "Great 40 Days", and "Great Fast", respectively), is the most impor ...
(Lent)— when drinking milk was prohibited by Christian Orthodox ecclesiastical authorities. The practice of milk-drinking during these fasts was first sanctioned by the
Nestorian Church in the 11th century in order to accommodate the conversion of some 200,000
Turkic Christians, who lived on meat and milk, to Nestorian Christianity.
Two theories emerge regarding the formation of the milk-drinking practice during Lent:
The first one suggests that the
Keraite
The Keraites (also ''Kerait, Kereit, Khereid'', Kazakh: керейт; Kyrgyz: керей; Mongolian: Хэрэйд; Nogai: Кереит; Uzbek: ''Kerait''; Chinese: 克烈) were one of the five dominant Turco-Mongol tribal confederations ...
Khan, Markus Buyruk Khan (formerly
Sadiq Khan
Sir Sadiq Aman Khan (, ; born 8 October 1970) is a British politician serving as Mayor of London since 2016. He was previously Member of Parliament (United Kingdom), Member of Parliament (MP) for Tooting (UK Parliament constituency), Tooting ...
, prior to Christian conversion), had converted to Nestorian Christianity along with around 200,000 of his Turco-Mongolic nomadic tribespeople in 1007 CE. The Keraite people were one of the five dominant Turco-Mongol tribes of the Tatar confederation prior to Genghis Khan. Genghis Khan united the Tatar tribes into the Mongol Empire. The Keraite resided upon the Orkhon Steppes, south of Lake Baikal and north of the Gobi Desert, also referred to as the Altai-Sayan region. The Nestorian
Metropolitan, upon the conversion of the Turco-mongolic people, asked the Patriarch John the VI, also known as
Prester John
Prester John () was a mythical Christian patriarch, presbyter, and king. Stories popular in Europe in the 12th to the 17th centuries told of a Church of the East, Nestorian patriarch and king who was said to rule over a Christian state, Christian ...
, what the appropriate fast for Lent should be for the new converts and it was decreed that the converts should abstain from meat eating and instead of drinking "soured" milk should consume "sweet" milk. Meat and fermented horse milk were staples of the Turco-Mongolic diet prior to the conversion to Christianity and instead of eliminating a long-held tradition of the nomadic people it was Christianized. Soured milk refers to fermented milk and sweet milk refers to fresh milk.
Arriving in
the Rus' lands with the 13th century Tatar (Mongolian) invasion of
Batu and
Möngke, the practice was adopted by other Christian groups, who had pastoral communities on the Eurasian plains.
The second theory proposes that
King David the IV of Georgia converted 40,000
Cuman
The Cumans or Kumans were a Turkic nomadic people from Central Asia comprising the western branch of the Cuman–Kipchak confederation who spoke the Cuman language. They are referred to as Polovtsians (''Polovtsy'') in Rus' chronicles, as " ...
-
Kipchak tribal families to Christianity and resettled them in Georgia between 1118-1120 CE. King David the IV assimilated these northern Turkic tribes because he was at war with the Muslim Seljuk Turks to the South and desired to reform his army. Each Kipchak family was required to provide one soldier with a horse and weapons. Though David the IV is not reported as being a religious adherent he was a promoter of
Christian culture
Christian culture generally includes all the cultural practices which have developed around the religion of Christianity. There are variations in the application of Christian beliefs in different cultures and traditions.
Christian culture has i ...
.
The Cumans, Kipchaks,
Tatars
Tatars ( )[Tatar]
in the Collins English Dictionary are a group of Turkic peoples across Eas ...
, Mongolians, and Bashkirs (who descend from Kipchaks) all have the tradition of making fermented milk products. The Cumans call it ''
kumis
''Kumis'' ( , ), alternatively spelled ''coumis'' or ''kumyz'', also known as ''airag'' ( ), is a traditional Fermented milk products, fermented dairy product made from mare milk. The drink is important to the peoples of the Central and East ...
,'' Mongolians call it ''airag,'' Tatars call it ''azegay'', and the Baskir call it ''azekay''. This lends itself to the possibility of the second theory, as well as the first.
100 families of the original Molokan Karaits were settled in Halychyna (specifically Lviv) by hostage arrangement between Daniel of Galicia and Batu Khan in 1246 CE.
15th–16th centuries CE
The
Judaizers
The Judaizers were a faction of the Jewish Christians, both of Jewish and non-Jewish origins, who regarded the Levitical laws of the Old Testament as still binding on all Christians. They tried to enforce Jewish circumcision upon the Gentile ...
preceded the modern day Molokans. Although they are sometimes also called "Molokans", they constitute an independent movement. Their leader
Matvei Semyonovich Dalmatov (Матвей Семёнович Далматов) was tortured to death in a monastery prison by
breaking wheel
The breaking wheel, also known as the execution wheel, the Wheel of Catherine or the (Saint) Catherine('s) Wheel, was a torture method used for public execution primarily in Europe from antiquity through the Middle Ages up to the 19th century ...
.
In 1428
Crimea
Crimea ( ) is a peninsula in Eastern Europe, on the northern coast of the Black Sea, almost entirely surrounded by the Black Sea and the smaller Sea of Azov. The Isthmus of Perekop connects the peninsula to Kherson Oblast in mainland Ukrain ...
became independent and supported the original Molokan-Subbotniks, the
Crimean Karaites
Crimean Karaites or simply Karaites (Crimean Karaim language, Karaim: Кърымкъарайлар, ''Qrımqaraylar'', singular къарай, ''qaray''; Trakai dialect: ''karajlar'', singular ''karaj''; ; ; ), also known more broadly as Eastern E ...
(Qara-Tatars / Karaylar), who had always played an important role in Mongol politics. The linguistically dominant Church of the East Karait-Tatars, who had similar origins to the Khavars, became “Karaimstvuiuschie” (or Molokan Karaits).
17th–18th centuries AD
The first recorded use of the term "Molokan" appears in the 1670s, in reference to a group of people who had the practice of not fasting as well as eating dairy products during the 200 fasting days stipulated by the Orthodox Church. In Russian, means "milk", and thus this came to be the name for these particular Christians. Nonetheless, these were "Spiritual Christians" who were not directly related to the group later known as "Molokans".
The "Molokans" that are known today by that name, split in 1779 and 1780 from the
Doukhobors
The Doukhobors ( Canadian spelling) or Dukhobors (; ) are a Spiritual Christian ethnoreligious group of Russian origin. They are known for their pacifism and tradition of oral history, hymn-singing, and verse. They reject the Russian Ortho ...
because they thought that the Doukhobors neglected the Bible; in their belief, God had placed the Word directly into their hearts. The Molokans, however, held the written Bible in the highest regard. The founder of the Molokans,
Semyon Matveevich Uklein (1733-1809), was a son-in-law of the Doukhobor leader
Ilarion Poberokhin (1720-1792) as explained by O. Beznosova: "Soon (approximately in 1779-1780) a group broke away from Pobirohin's disciples. It was led by his son-in-law Semyon Uklein, who did not share the mystical spirit and self-deification of the former leader and defended the need for reliance on the Gospel texts in the organization of church life (Margaritov, 1914). This group (called "Molokans") became a "rational" direction of Spiritual Christianity, as opposed to the "mystics" - "christoverchestvo" adherents, "Doukhobors" and "
skoptsy"."
Uklein's Molokans from Tambov energetically proselytized in settlements along the
Volga River
The Volga (, ) is the longest river in Europe and the longest endorheic basin river in the world. Situated in Russia, it flows through Central Russia to Southern Russia and into the Caspian Sea. The Volga has a length of , and a catchment ...
and Russia's south-eastern frontier, spreading the Molokan faith in the provinces of
Orenburg
Orenburg (, ), formerly known as Chkalov (1938–1957), is the administrative center of Orenburg Oblast, Russia. It lies in Eastern Europe, along the banks of the Ural River, being approximately southeast of Moscow.
Orenburg is close to the ...
,
Saratov
Saratov ( , ; , ) is the largest types of inhabited localities in Russia, city and administrative center of Saratov Oblast, Russia, and a major port on the Volga River. Saratov had a population of 901,361, making it the List of cities and tow ...
, and
Astrakhan
Astrakhan (, ) is the largest city and administrative centre of Astrakhan Oblast in southern Russia. The city lies on two banks of the Volga, in the upper part of the Volga Delta, on eleven islands of the Caspian Depression, from the Caspian Se ...
; Uklein would further continue organizing congregations until his death in 1809.
19th–20th centuries CE
From the intervention of Count
Nikolay Zubov Nikolay Zubov may refer to:
* Nikolay Alexandrovich Zubov (1763-1805), Russian nobleman
* Nikolay Nikolaevich Zubov (1885-1960), Russian naval officer and oceanographer
* Nikolay Zubov (icebreaker), see Project 23550 patrol ship
{{hndis, Zubov, ...
in 1795, Molokans (бесшапочники) were tolerated under
Catherine the Great
Catherine II. (born Princess Sophie of Anhalt-Zerbst; 2 May 172917 November 1796), most commonly known as Catherine the Great, was the reigning empress of Russia from 1762 to 1796. She came to power after overthrowing her husband, Peter I ...
but constrained by strict rules imposed upon them intended to curb community growth. Those who ignored the restrictions were punished in
Tsarist Russia as
heretics
Heresy is any belief or theory that is strongly at variance with established beliefs or customs, particularly the accepted beliefs or religious law of a religious organization. A heretic is a proponent of heresy.
Heresy in Christianity, Judai ...
. Molokan evangelists and missionaries suffered imprisonment, banishment and other forms of punishment. Prohibited from winning converts, the Molokans were forced into
endogamy
Endogamy is the cultural practice of marrying within a specific social group, religious denomination, caste, or ethnic group, rejecting any from outside of the group or belief structure as unsuitable for marriage or other close personal relatio ...
. The government's policy was to send the Molokans away from the center of Russia into the Caucasus (1833), and other outlying areas to prevent their having influence on other peasants; they were sent to
Armenia
Armenia, officially the Republic of Armenia, is a landlocked country in the Armenian Highlands of West Asia. It is a part of the Caucasus region and is bordered by Turkey to the west, Georgia (country), Georgia to the north and Azerbaijan to ...
,
Azerbaijan
Azerbaijan, officially the Republic of Azerbaijan, is a Boundaries between the continents, transcontinental and landlocked country at the boundary of West Asia and Eastern Europe. It is a part of the South Caucasus region and is bounded by ...
(1834),
Ukraine
Ukraine is a country in Eastern Europe. It is the List of European countries by area, second-largest country in Europe after Russia, which Russia–Ukraine border, borders it to the east and northeast. Ukraine also borders Belarus to the nor ...
(1830s), central
Asia
Asia ( , ) is the largest continent in the world by both land area and population. It covers an area of more than 44 million square kilometres, about 30% of Earth's total land area and 8% of Earth's total surface area. The continent, which ...
, and
Siberia
Siberia ( ; , ) is an extensive geographical region comprising all of North Asia, from the Ural Mountains in the west to the Pacific Ocean in the east. It has formed a part of the sovereign territory of Russia and its predecessor states ...
, where many communities have survived into the present.
It is said that in 1900, despite the persecutions by the Tsarist government and Orthodox Church, there could have been about a half-million Spiritual Christians in the Russian empire. These figures appear, however, to be vastly exaggerated. In 1912, there were only 133,935 ''Molokane'' and 4,844 ''Pryguny'' counted in Russia (census of the Department of Spiritual Affairs; see
Glenn Dynner
Glenn Davis Dynner (born April 11, 1969) is an American author and historian specializing in religion and history of East European Jewry. He is the Co-Editor-in-Chief of '' Shofar: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Jewish Studies'' and a Professor ...
: "Holy Dissent: Jewish and Christian Mystics in Eastern Europe", 2011).
Fewer than one thousand ''Molokane'' fled Russia in the early 1900s (mostly 1905-1912), many of whom settled near other non-Orthodox immigrants from Russia in an ethnic
enclave
An enclave is a territory that is entirely surrounded by the territory of only one other state or entity. An enclave can be an independent territory or part of a larger one. Enclaves may also exist within territorial waters. ''Enclave'' is so ...
on and near
Potrero Hill,
San Francisco, California
San Francisco, officially the City and County of San Francisco, is a commercial, Financial District, San Francisco, financial, and Culture of San Francisco, cultural center of Northern California. With a population of 827,526 residents as of ...
, where they built a prayer hall in 1929. A second prayer hall was established near
Sheridan, California
Sheridan is a census-designated place in Placer County, California, United States. It is located at the western edge of the county, along State Route 65. Sheridan is northwest of Lincoln. The population was 1,238 at the 2010 census.
History
Sh ...
to serve those scattered in Northern California. There has been a population of Molokans in Whittier, Southern California. As of 2022, there is still a church called ‘New United Molokan Church.’ Though some Spiritual Christian faith groups fled Russia in the early 1900s to avoid the military draft, all eligible ''Molokan'' boys registered for the
Selective Service Act of 1917
The Selective Service Act of 1917 or Selective Draft Act () authorized the United States federal government to raise a national army for service in World War I through conscription. It was envisioned in December 1916 and brought to Presiden ...
, but were disqualified as aliens who did not speak English. During World War II, 136 eligible American ''Molokan'' boys enlisted during World War II, and two were
conscientious objectors
A conscientious objector is an "individual who has claimed the right to refuse to perform military service" on the grounds of freedom of conscience or freedom of religion, religion. The term has also been extended to objecting to working for ...
.
Being prohibited from winning converts under the laws of the Russian Empire, they adopted
endogamy
Endogamy is the cultural practice of marrying within a specific social group, religious denomination, caste, or ethnic group, rejecting any from outside of the group or belief structure as unsuitable for marriage or other close personal relatio ...
and were classified as an ethnic group under the Bolsheviks.
Groups of Molokans
From 1904 through the 1920s, many different faith tribes in the Caucasus immigrated to North America under the guise of "Molokan". In 1899, when about a third of all ''
Dukhobortsty'' left the Caucasus to central Canada, the Canadian government also gave permission for "Molokans" to migrate and get the same privileges (land, communal, non-military). To take advantage of this generous privilege, many different faith tribes of
spiritual Christians
Spiritual Christianity () is the group of belief systems held by so-called folk Protestants (), including non-Eastern Orthodox indigenous faith tribes and new religious movements that emerged in the Russian Empire. Their origins are varied: some ...
in the Caucasus all claimed to be "Molokan" while leaving Russia for Canada. Most all were diverted from Canada to Los Angeles by
Peter Demens, where they clashed, never uniting. Many descendants of those different tribes still claim the coveted ''Molokan'' heritage label which perpetuates confusion.
Constant Molokans and Molokan Jumpers
The Russian term "constant" (invariable, steadfast, unchanged, original: : ) applied to the ''Molokans'' has been used with two different intentions. By original ''Molokans'' who either refused to be evangelized by Protestant denominations or insisted that they will retain their faith unchanged by the "Jumper" revivalist movement in the 1830s. They originally constituted the by far largest segment of Molokanism. In 1833, a
schism
A schism ( , , or, less commonly, ) is a division between people, usually belonging to an organization, movement, or religious denomination. The word is most frequently applied to a split in what had previously been a single religious body, suc ...
took place within the Molokan faith. This event was framed by collective cataclysms of disease, famine, and persecution. A portion of the Molokans during this time began to experience a charismatic outpouring of the Holy Spirit, similar to later
Pentecostal
Pentecostalism or classical Pentecostalism is a movement within the broader Evangelical wing of Protestantism, Protestant Christianity that emphasizes direct personal experience of God in Christianity, God through Baptism with the Holy Spirit#Cl ...
faiths. Eventually this sect evolved into what is known today as the "Molokan Jumpers". The old Molokans were termed ''Constants'' (), and the newly evolved "Molokans jumpers" (), also called (leapers). The Molokan ''Jumpers'' believed they were visited by a manifestation of the Holy Spirit, and this new smaller Molokan sect began a revival with intense zeal, reporting miracles that purportedly rivaled those of Christ's apostles.
Seeds of exodus
The "Constant" Molokan sect condemned the new sect to authorities, resulting in betrayals and imprisonment for many of the Molokan Jumpers. Some of these Molokan Jumpers called themselves "New Israelites", when one leader
Maxim Rudomyotkin in Nikitino, Erivan Guberniya was announced to be the "King of the Spirits" in 1853. The group, also known as Maximists", considered
Efim Gerasimovich Klubnikin (1842-1915) in Romanovka, Kars oblast, a divinely inspired 12-year-old boy prophet. He prophesied a "coming time that would be unbearable and that the time to leave Russia was now." During the early 20th century under his leadership, about 2,000 emigrated to the
United States
The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...
, first settling on the east side of
Los Angeles
Los Angeles, often referred to by its initials L.A., is the List of municipalities in California, most populous city in the U.S. state of California, and the commercial, Financial District, Los Angeles, financial, and Culture of Los Angeles, ...
. Most seeking rural isolation moved to Baja Mexico, then Arizona, Central California, and some other parts of the West Coast and Canada. Other Jumpers received a land grant from the
Mexican government
The Federal government of Mexico (alternately known as the Government of the Republic or ' or ') is the national government of the United Mexican States, the central government established by its constitution to share sovereignty over the republ ...
and settled in the
Guadalupe Valley in
Baja California
Baja California, officially the Free and Sovereign State of Baja California, is a state in Mexico. It is the northwesternmost of the 32 federal entities of Mexico. Before becoming a state in 1952, the area was known as the North Territory of B ...
,
Mexico
Mexico, officially the United Mexican States, is a country in North America. It is the northernmost country in Latin America, and borders the United States to the north, and Guatemala and Belize to the southeast; while having maritime boundar ...
.
In Los Angeles, a small number of the Molokan Jumpers joined the development of the American Revival called "the
Pentecostal
Pentecostalism or classical Pentecostalism is a movement within the broader Evangelical wing of Protestantism, Protestant Christianity that emphasizes direct personal experience of God in Christianity, God through Baptism with the Holy Spirit#Cl ...
Azusa Street Revival
The Azusa Street Revival was a historic series of revival meetings that took place in Los Angeles, California. It was led by William J. Seymour, an African-American preacher. The revival began on April 9, 1906, and continued until roughly 191 ...
." The founder of
The Full Gospel Business Men's Association associates this
Pentecostal
Pentecostalism or classical Pentecostalism is a movement within the broader Evangelical wing of Protestantism, Protestant Christianity that emphasizes direct personal experience of God in Christianity, God through Baptism with the Holy Spirit#Cl ...
Revival to a child prophet of the Molokan Jumpers, E.G. Klubnikin.
Diaspora
About 20,000 people identify as Molokans, at least ethnically, in the former Soviet Union. There are approximately 200 Molokan churches, 150 of them in Russia and
Azerbaijan
Azerbaijan, officially the Republic of Azerbaijan, is a Boundaries between the continents, transcontinental and landlocked country at the boundary of West Asia and Eastern Europe. It is a part of the South Caucasus region and is bounded by ...
. They also lived in the
North Caucasus
The North Caucasus, or Ciscaucasia, is a subregion in Eastern Europe governed by Russia. It constitutes the northern part of the wider Caucasus region, which separates Europe and Asia. The North Caucasus is bordered by the Sea of Azov and the B ...
,
Southern Ukraine
Southern Ukraine (, ) refers, generally, to the territories in the South of Ukraine.
The territory usually corresponds with the Soviet economical district, the Southern Economical District of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic. The region ...
,
Armenia
Armenia, officially the Republic of Armenia, is a landlocked country in the Armenian Highlands of West Asia. It is a part of the Caucasus region and is bordered by Turkey to the west, Georgia (country), Georgia to the north and Azerbaijan to ...
, and
Central Asia
Central Asia is a region of Asia consisting of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan. The countries as a group are also colloquially referred to as the "-stans" as all have names ending with the Persian language, Pers ...
, where their ancestors had been exiled long ago.
Approximately 25,000 Molokans reside in the United States, of whom about 5,000 "ethnically" identify as "Molokans". The majority live in or near
Los Angeles
Los Angeles, often referred to by its initials L.A., is the List of municipalities in California, most populous city in the U.S. state of California, and the commercial, Financial District, Los Angeles, financial, and Culture of Los Angeles, ...
, particularly in
East Los Angeles
East Los Angeles (), or East L.A., is an unincorporated community and census designated place (CDP) situated within Los Angeles County, California, United States. According to the United States Census Bureau, East Los Angeles is designated as ...
,
Boyle Heights
Boyle may refer to:
Places United States
* Boyle, Kansas, an unincorporated community
* Boyle, Mississippi, a town
*Boyle County, Kentucky
*Boyle Heights, Los Angeles, a neighborhood
Elsewhere
* Boyle (crater), a lunar crater
* 11967 Boyle, ...
, and
Commerce
Commerce is the organized Complex system, system of activities, functions, procedures and institutions that directly or indirectly contribute to the smooth, unhindered large-scale exchange (distribution through Financial transaction, transactiona ...
.
During the 1960s other Molokans settled in southern
Alaska
Alaska ( ) is a non-contiguous U.S. state on the northwest extremity of North America. Part of the Western United States region, it is one of the two non-contiguous U.S. states, alongside Hawaii. Alaska is also considered to be the north ...
and
Australia
Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising mainland Australia, the mainland of the Australia (continent), Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and list of islands of Australia, numerous smaller isl ...
. Molokans are said to be numerous in
Australia
Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising mainland Australia, the mainland of the Australia (continent), Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and list of islands of Australia, numerous smaller isl ...
. The majority are in
South Australia
South Australia (commonly abbreviated as SA) is a States and territories of Australia, state in the southern central part of Australia. With a total land area of , it is the fourth-largest of Australia's states and territories by area, which in ...
, with a number of families in
Western Australia
Western Australia (WA) is the westernmost state of Australia. It is bounded by the Indian Ocean to the north and west, the Southern Ocean to the south, the Northern Territory to the north-east, and South Australia to the south-east. Western Aust ...
and a small group residing in
Queensland
Queensland ( , commonly abbreviated as Qld) is a States and territories of Australia, state in northeastern Australia, and is the second-largest and third-most populous state in Australia. It is bordered by the Northern Territory, South Austr ...
. Over 1,000 reside in Canada in the province of
British Columbia
British Columbia is the westernmost Provinces and territories of Canada, province of Canada. Situated in the Pacific Northwest between the Pacific Ocean and the Rocky Mountains, the province has a diverse geography, with rugged landscapes that ...
and hundreds more in
Alberta
Alberta is a Provinces and territories of Canada, province in Canada. It is a part of Western Canada and is one of the three Canadian Prairies, prairie provinces. Alberta is bordered by British Columbia to its west, Saskatchewan to its east, t ...
, keeping their traditional communal lifestyle. A group of Molokan families are also living in
Latin America
Latin America is the cultural region of the Americas where Romance languages are predominantly spoken, primarily Spanish language, Spanish and Portuguese language, Portuguese. Latin America is defined according to cultural identity, not geogr ...
in the Guadalupe Valley,
Mexico
Mexico, officially the United Mexican States, is a country in North America. It is the northernmost country in Latin America, and borders the United States to the north, and Guatemala and Belize to the southeast; while having maritime boundar ...
and in the country of
Uruguay
Uruguay, officially the Oriental Republic of Uruguay, is a country in South America. It shares borders with Argentina to its west and southwest and Brazil to its north and northeast, while bordering the Río de la Plata to the south and the A ...
.
A small Molokan community was located in the eastern province of
Kars
Kars ( or ; ; ) is a city in northeast Turkey. It is the seat of Kars Province and Kars District.[� ...]
,
Turkey
Turkey, officially the Republic of Türkiye, is a country mainly located in Anatolia in West Asia, with a relatively small part called East Thrace in Southeast Europe. It borders the Black Sea to the north; Georgia (country), Georgia, Armen ...
. They are known as
Kars Molokans. Most of the community returned to Russia years ago; in the 21st century only one family of Molokans is left in Kars.
Spiritual practices
The Molokans have been compared to the
Anabaptists
Anabaptism (from Neo-Latin , from the Greek : 're-' and 'baptism'; , earlier also )Since the middle of the 20th century, the German-speaking world no longer uses the term (translation: "Re-baptizers"), considering it biased. The term (tra ...
that originated through the
Radical Reformation
The Radical Reformation represented a response to perceived corruption both in the Catholic Church and in the expanding Magisterial Protestant movement led by Martin Luther and many others. Starting in Germany and Switzerland in the 16th cen ...
and to the
Quakers
Quakers are people who belong to the Religious Society of Friends, a historically Protestantism, Protestant Christian set of Christian denomination, denominations. Members refer to each other as Friends after in the Bible, and originally ...
. They have a protestant-like view of the authority of scripture, however interpreting the bible allegorically or "spiritually", they see the sacraments "spiritually", reject the use of icons, images of the cross and Church hierarchy along with venerating the saints.
The Molokans advocate for pacifism, congregate in their own homes, do not drink or smoke, oppose contraception and modern technology.
The Molokans follow the Old Testament laws, refusing to eat pork, shellfish or unclean foods, they additionally refused to obey Orthodox mandates on fasting.
Racial, ethnic, and familial lineage

The Molokans from Tambov who proselytized in settlements along the Volga River and in the Orenburg, Saratov and Astrakhan provinces were mostly of Slavic descent.
Tambov Oblast
Tambov Oblast () is a federal subjects of Russia, federal subject of Russia (an oblast). Its administrative center is the types of inhabited localities in Russia, city of Tambov. As of the Russian Census (2010), 2010 Census, its population was&n ...
had been completely settled by Slavic people by the 17th century. The regions they proselytized in all had or still have high populations of Islamic adherents and people of 'Tatar' or Turkic ancestry.
Between the 1600s and late 1800s, intermarriage between ethnic Russians and Tatars (Tatar at this point meaning anyone of Turkic background) was common. For a Tatar, marrying a Russian was a way to increase social status or class. Muslim Tatars who converted to Christianity were exempted from taxes and gained other privileges.
Molokans as partially an admixture of Slavic and Turkic genetics is also supported by other accounts. Molokans complicated the work of the Eastern Orthodox Church in the conversion of Tatar or Turkic Muslims, as Molokans taught that religious iconography was a sin. Molokans are well-known iconoclasts, which was heresy to the Orthodox Church. Muslims, also being iconoclasts, found a draw to the Molokan faith as it preserved some Islamic traditions. Muslim converts in Russia were also well known to convert to Christianity to receive the benefits of conversion, only to convert back to Islam later. Molokans, being constrained to endogamy and marrying within their religion, would marry converts indiscriminate of their genetic background.
Notable people
*
Ivan Prokhanov, religious figure, engineer, poet, preacher,
*
Lou Novikoff, professional baseball player
*
Jim Loscutoff, professional basketball player
*
Matvey Skobelev, marxist revolutionary and politician
*
Shirley Babashoff, Olympic swimming champion
Molokans in the United States
History
Roughly 3,500 Molokans left Russia between 1901 and 1911 in search of religious freedom, escaping the persecution inflicted upon them by the Russian Orthodox Church and state. Starting around the early 1900s, many Molokans settled in the
Potrero Hill neighborhood of San Francisco, California. The
Potrero Hill Neighborhood House was built in 1922 by the California Synodical Society of Home Mission, Inc. and the
Presbyterian Church
Presbyterianism is a historically Reformed Christianity, Reformed Protestantism, Protestant tradition named for its form of ecclesiastical polity, church government by representative assemblies of Presbyterian polity#Elder, elders, known as ...
, in order to support this newfound community, provided adult education classes, a community center, and a kindergarten.
By the time of the 1970s, the Potrero Hill community was still in existence, but other smaller groups of the Molokans had become assimilated into the more broad Russian-American community.
Today, Molokans in the United States are largely assimilated into the general mainstay of American culture. They do however work to preserve the uniqueness of their own traditions and culture, such as through the usage of Russian in their church services, community dinners (referred to as 'obed'), and a shared adherence to diet based upon their religious beliefs.
Perception of Molokans
Upon their arrival in the USA, the Molokans and their religious observances seemed very strange to Americans. The Molokan colonies and communities were labeled "cults" and Molokans were harassed by Americans with the creation of the derogatory term "Molokan Slackers". The Molokans were given this moniker primarily because they did not want to serve in
World War I
World War I or the First World War (28 July 1914 – 11 November 1918), also known as the Great War, was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War I, Allies (or Entente) and the Central Powers. Fighting to ...
, as they were
conscientious objectors
A conscientious objector is an "individual who has claimed the right to refuse to perform military service" on the grounds of freedom of conscience or freedom of religion, religion. The term has also been extended to objecting to working for ...
.
Legal issues
On June 8, 1917, the ''
Arizona Republic
''The Arizona Republic'' is an American daily newspaper published in Phoenix. Circulated throughout Arizona, it is the state's largest newspaper. Since 2000, it has been owned by the Gannett newspaper chain.
History
Early years
The newspap ...
'' reported that the Molokan community in Glendale, Arizona, refused to register under the
selective service act of 1917
The Selective Service Act of 1917 or Selective Draft Act () authorized the United States federal government to raise a national army for service in World War I through conscription. It was envisioned in December 1916 and brought to Presiden ...
. The likely result would be the arrest of Molokan men who refused to sign the order. Molokans claimed that their religious precepts forbade them from signing such an agreement. The Czars had forced them into the military, and that is why they fled Russia for the United States. The Molokans feared that history would repeat itself in America.
On August 9, 1917, ''The Daily Missoulian'' reported that 35 Molokans were arrested and given sentences of one year each for disobeying the Selective Service Act of 1917. Thirty-three other Molokans were arrested for creating a disturbance outside of the jail house; women struck police with their umbrellas and a knife-wielding man had to be overpowered. After the 35 men were sentenced, the Molokans in the courtroom broke out into ecstatic singing and dancing and some participants were slightly injured while being subdued.
Naming after immigration
Molokans are known for having different spellings of last names within the same immediate family for a few reasons. When Molokans arrived in the United States, some family names were horribly misspelled by immigration officials who could not read Cyrillic—for example, "Сусоев" became "Sessoyeff," which is unpronounceable in English. Also, like members of other pacifist communities, some Molokans changed the spelling of their names to avoid deportation. Many chose to use American versions of their names. So "Vasilli Bukroff" becomes "Bill" or "William Bukroff" or "Ivan Metchikoff" will become "John Mitchell" and "Dunya Tikunov" will be "Julie Tyler". They also sometimes use "first names" that are not their legal names and are based on nicknames from childhood within the church that stuck with people as adults. For example, "Hazel Valov" became known as "Percy Valov", for being very "persistent". Another naming custom that can confuse those who are unfamiliar with the community was practiced by Molokans who settled in the Guadalupe Valley, Mexico. Many settlers adopted the Mexican versions of their names, so Rodion Pavlov became "Rodolfo Pabloff," and they named their children following the Mexican format. Accordingly, one will see what would have been a Russian name like "Ivan Pavilovich Pabloff" (Ivan son of Pavil (Paul) (Pavlov)), whose mother's maiden name is "Samarin," become "Juan Pablo Pabloff de Samarin" or "Juan Samarin Pabloff". In all these instances, tracing family history can be very difficult. Otherwise, they adhere to the common naming practices. A lot can be learned from a Russian headstone which will commonly go back to the use of the Russian naming protocol regardless of what name the individual used while alive. If translated correctly, one should learn the names of an individual's father and grandfather from a male's headstone. If it is displayed in English at the bottom it most likely will not contain the information.
Ecumenical relations
In Russia, the ''Molokane'' historically maintained close relations with
Baptist
Baptists are a Christian denomination, denomination within Protestant Christianity distinguished by baptizing only professing Christian believers (believer's baptism) and doing so by complete Immersion baptism, immersion. Baptist churches ge ...
s.
See also
*
Spiritual Christianity
Spiritual Christianity () is the group of belief systems held by so-called folk Protestants (), including non-Eastern Orthodox indigenous faith tribes and new religious movements that emerged in the Russian Empire. Their origins are varied: som ...
*
Subbotniks
Subbotniks ( rus, Субботники, p=sʊˈbotnʲɪkʲɪ, "Sabbatarians") is a common name for adherents of Russians, Russian religious movements that split from Sabbatarianism, Sabbatarian sects in the late 18th century.
The majority o ...
*
Doukhobor
The Doukhobors ( Canadian spelling) or Dukhobors (; ) are a Spiritual Christian ethnoreligious group of Russian origin. They are known for their pacifism and tradition of oral history, hymn-singing, and verse. They reject the Russian Ortho ...
*
Christian anarchism
Christian anarchism is a Christian movement in political theology that claims anarchism is inherent in Christianity and the Gospels. It is grounded in the belief that there is only one source of authority to which Christians are ultimately answ ...
*
Peace church
*
List of pacifist faiths
*
Simple living
Simple living refers to practices that promote simplicity in one's lifestyle. Common practices of simple living include reducing the number of possessions one owns, depending less on technology and services, and spending less money. In addition t ...
References
External links
Molokane.org*
ttp://www.molokane.org/taxonomy/index.htm Taxonomy of 3 Spiritual Christian groups: ''Molokane'', ''Pryguny'' and ''Dukh-i-zhizniki'' — books, fellowship, holidays, prophets and songs by Andrei Conovaloff, updated July 2019.
The Economist - "The last of the Molokans"Iconobortsi Molokans in AzerbaijanIvanovka.net (ru)pryguny.ru: site about molokans-jumpers(ru)
{{Authority control
Christian denominations established in the 16th century
Spiritual Christianity
Peace churches
Religious organizations established in the 1550s
Ethnoreligious groups in Russia
Ethnoreligious groups in the United States
Ethnic groups in Ukraine
Russian diaspora in Armenia
Russian diaspora in Turkey
Russian diaspora in Mexico
Russian diaspora in the United States
Russian sub-ethnic groups
Christian ethnoreligious groups