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OR:

or (plural varies: , , , or ) are spirits or an object that a spirit inhabits. It is frequently applied to a variety of objects used throughout the
Congo Basin The Congo Basin () is the sedimentary basin of the Congo River. The Congo Basin is located in Central Africa, in a region known as west equatorial Africa. The Congo Basin region is sometimes known simply as the Congo. It contains some of the larg ...
in
Central Africa Central Africa (French language, French: ''Afrique centrale''; Spanish language, Spanish: ''África central''; Portuguese language, Portuguese: ''África Central'') is a subregion of the African continent comprising various countries accordin ...
, especially in the Territory of Cabinda that are believed to contain spiritual powers or spirits. The term and its concept have passed with the
Atlantic slave trade The Atlantic slave trade or transatlantic slave trade involved the transportation by slave traders of Slavery in Africa, enslaved African people to the Americas. European slave ships regularly used the triangular trade route and its Middle Pass ...
to the
Americas The Americas, sometimes collectively called America, are a landmass comprising the totality of North America and South America.''Webster's New World College Dictionary'', 2010 by Wiley Publishing, Inc., Cleveland, Ohio. When viewed as a sing ...
.


Meaning

The current meaning of the term derives from the root , referring to a spiritual entity or material objects in which it is manifested or inhabits in Proto-Njila, an ancient subdivision of the
Bantu language The Bantu languages (English: , Proto-Bantu language, Proto-Bantu: *bantʊ̀), or Ntu languages are a language family of about 600 languages of Central Africa, Central, Southern Africa, Southern, East Africa, Eastern and Southeast Africa, South ...
family. In its earliest attestations in
Kikongo Kongo or Kikongo is one of the Bantu languages spoken by the Kongo people living in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), the Republic of the Congo, Gabon, and Angola. It is a tonal language. The vast majority of present-day speakers li ...
dialects in the early seventeenth century, it was transliterated as in
Dutch Dutch or Nederlands commonly refers to: * Something of, from, or related to the Netherlands ** Dutch people as an ethnic group () ** Dutch nationality law, history and regulations of Dutch citizenship () ** Dutch language () * In specific terms, i ...
, as the ''mu-'' prefix in this noun class was still pronounced. It was reported by Dutch visitors to Loango, the current territory of Cabinda, in the 1668 book '' Description of Africa'' as referring both to a material item and the spiritual entity that inhabits it. In the sixteenth century, when the
Kingdom of Kongo The Kingdom of Kongo ( or ''Wene wa Kongo;'' ) was a kingdom in Central Africa. It was located in present-day northern Angola, the western portion of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, southern Gabon and the Republic of the Congo. At its gre ...
was converted to
Christianity Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion, which states that Jesus in Christianity, Jesus is the Son of God (Christianity), Son of God and Resurrection of Jesus, rose from the dead after his Crucifixion of Jesus, crucifixion, whose ...
, (a substance having characteristics of ) was used to translate ''holy'' in the Kikongo
Catechism A catechism (; from , "to teach orally") is a summary or exposition of Catholic theology, doctrine and serves as a learning introduction to the Sacraments traditionally used in catechesis, or Christian religious teaching of children and adult co ...
of 1624.


Use

Close communication with ancestors and belief in the efficacy of their powers are closely associated with minkisi in
Kongo Kongo may refer to: Kongo culture *Kingdom of Kongo *Kongo cosmogram *Kongo language or Kikongo, one of the Bantu languages *Kongo languages *Kongo people *Kongo religion Places * Kongo, Ghana, a town in Ghana *Kongo Central, formerly Bas-Cong ...
tradition. Among the peoples of the
Congo Basin The Congo Basin () is the sedimentary basin of the Congo River. The Congo Basin is located in Central Africa, in a region known as west equatorial Africa. The Congo Basin region is sometimes known simply as the Congo. It contains some of the larg ...
, especially the
Bakongo The Kongo people (also , singular: or ''M'kongo; , , singular: '') are a Bantu ethnic group primarily defined as the speakers of Kikongo. Subgroups include the Beembe, Bwende, Vili, Sundi, Yombe, Dondo, Lari, and others. They have li ...
and the
Songye The Songye people, sometimes written Songe, are a Bantu peoples, Bantu ethnic group from the central Democratic Republic of the Congo. They speak the Songe language. They inhabit a vast territory between the Sankuru River, Sankuru/Lulibash river i ...
people of Kasai, exceptional human powers are frequently believed to result from some sort of communication with the dead. People known as ''banganga'' (singular: ''
nganga A ''nganga'' (pl. banganga or kimbanda) is a spiritual healer, diviner, and ritual specialist in traditional Kongo religion. These experts also exist across the African diaspora in countries where Kongo and Mbundu people were transported dur ...
'') work as healers, diviners, and mediators who defend the living against black magic (witchcraft) and provide them with remedies against diseases resulting either from witchcraft or the demands of '' bakisi'' (spirits), emissaries from the land of the dead. harness the powers of and the dead by making . are primarily containers – ceramic vessels, gourds, animal horns, shells, bundles, or any other object that can contain spiritually charged substances. Even
graves A grave is a location where a dead body (typically that of a human, although sometimes that of an animal) is buried or interred after a funeral. Graves are usually located in special areas set aside for the purpose of burial, such as grave ...
themselves, as the home of the dead and hence the home of , can be considered as . In fact, have even been described as portable graves, and many include earth or relics from the grave of a powerful individual as a prime ingredient. The powers of the dead thus infuse the object and allow the to control it. The metal objects commonly pounded into the surface of the power figures represent the 's active roles during rituals or ceremonies. Each nail or metal piece represents a vow, a signed treaty, and an effort to abolish evil. Ultimately, these figures most commonly represent reflections upon socially unacceptable behaviors and efforts to correct them. Often, people would seek aid through . In order to do so, an individual would have to seek the guidance of a nganga. The nganga would proceed using their ability to intervene with minkisi on behalf of the person seeking aid. The substances chosen for inclusion in are frequently called or (singular ), a word often translated as 'medicine'. However, their operation is not primarily pharmaceutical, as they are not applied to or ingested by those who are sick, and perhaps is more accurately translated as 'therapeutic substances'. Rather they are frequently chosen for metaphoric reasons, for example, bird claws in order to catch wrongdoers or because their names resemble characteristics of spirits in question. Among the many common materials used in the were
fruit In botany, a fruit is the seed-bearing structure in flowering plants (angiosperms) that is formed from the ovary after flowering. Fruits are the means by which angiosperms disseminate their seeds. Edible fruits in particular have long propaga ...
( in
Kikongo Kongo or Kikongo is one of the Bantu languages spoken by the Kongo people living in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), the Republic of the Congo, Gabon, and Angola. It is a tonal language. The vast majority of present-day speakers li ...
),
charcoal Charcoal is a lightweight black carbon residue produced by strongly heating wood (or other animal and plant materials) in minimal oxygen to remove all water and volatile constituents. In the traditional version of this pyrolysis process, ca ...
(), and
mushrooms A mushroom or toadstool is the fleshy, spore-bearing fruiting body of a fungus, typically produced above ground on soil or another food source. ''Toadstool'' generally refers to a poisonous mushroom. The standard for the name "mushroom" is ...
().
Minerals In geology and mineralogy, a mineral or mineral species is, broadly speaking, a solid substance with a fairly well-defined chemical composition and a specific crystal structure that occurs naturally in pure form.John P. Rafferty, ed. (2011): M ...
were collected from various places associated with the dead, such as earth collected from graves and riverbeds. White clay was also very important in the composition of due to the symbolic relationship of the color white and the physical aspects of dead skin as well as their moral rightness and spiritual positivity. White contrasted with black, the color of negativity. Some use red ochre as a coloring agent. The use of red is symbolic of the mediation of the powers of the dead. serve many purposes. Some are used in
divination Divination () is the attempt to gain insight into a question or situation by way of an occultic ritual or practice. Using various methods throughout history, diviners ascertain their interpretations of how a should proceed by reading signs, ...
practices, rituals to eradicate evil or punish wrong-doers, and ceremonies for protective installments. Many are also used for healing, while others provide success in hunting or trade, among other things. Important are often credited with powers in multiple domains. Most famously, may also take the form of
anthropomorphic Anthropomorphism is the attribution of human traits, emotions, or intentions to non-human entities. It is considered to be an innate tendency of human psychology. Personification is the related attribution of human form and characteristics to ...
or
zoomorphic The word ''zoomorphism'' derives from and . In the context of art, zoomorphism could describe art that imagines humans as non-human animals. It can also be defined as art that portrays one species of animal like another species of animal or art ...
wooden carvings.


Types

and the afflictions associated with them are generally classified into two types; the "of the above" and the "of the below". The above are associated with the
sky The sky is an unobstructed view upward from the planetary surface, surface of the Earth. It includes the atmosphere of Earth, atmosphere and outer space. It may also be considered a place between the ground and outer space, thus distinct from ...
,
rain Rain is a form of precipitation where water drop (liquid), droplets that have condensation, condensed from Water vapor#In Earth's atmosphere, atmospheric water vapor fall under gravity. Rain is a major component of the water cycle and is res ...
, and
thunderstorms A thunderstorm, also known as an electrical storm or a lightning storm, is a storm characterized by the presence of lightning and its acoustic effect on the Earth's atmosphere, known as thunder. Relatively weak thunderstorms are som ...
. The below are associated with the
earth Earth is the third planet from the Sun and the only astronomical object known to Planetary habitability, harbor life. This is enabled by Earth being an ocean world, the only one in the Solar System sustaining liquid surface water. Almost all ...
and waters on land. The above were considered masculine and were closely tied to violence and violent forces. The of the above were largely used to maintain order, serve justice, and seal treaties.
Birds of prey Birds of prey or predatory birds, also known as (although not the same as) raptors, are hypercarnivorous bird species that actively predation, hunt and feed on other vertebrates (mainly mammals, reptiles and smaller birds). In addition to speed ...
,
lightning Lightning is a natural phenomenon consisting of electrostatic discharges occurring through the atmosphere between two electrically charged regions. One or both regions are within the atmosphere, with the second region sometimes occurring on ...
,
weapons A weapon, arm, or armament is any implement or device that is used to deter, threaten, inflict physical damage, harm, or kill. Weapons are used to increase the efficacy and efficiency of activities such as hunting, crime (e.g., murder), law ...
, and
fire Fire is the rapid oxidation of a fuel in the exothermic chemical process of combustion, releasing heat, light, and various reaction Product (chemistry), products. Flames, the most visible portion of the fire, are produced in the combustion re ...
are all common themes among the of the above. They also affected the upper body. Head, neck, and chest pains were said to be caused by these figures. Some figures were in the form of animals. Most often these were dogs (). Dogs are closely tied to the spiritual world in Kongo mythology. They live in two separate worlds; the village of the living, and the forest of the dead. figures were often portrayed as having two heads – this was symbolic of their ability to see both worlds. ''Na monanga'' are associated with a powerful person, with great reasoning, bringing happiness and fortune. They often were created carefully, have a tranquil expression, and are covered in decorations consisting of different substances. ''Npezo'' figures are crafted to look menacing and are believed to have their powers weakened by laughter. There is also a difference between personal, and community nkisi. Personal nkisi figures were much more anonymous. They often were kept within a private domicile. While community ''mankishi'' on the other hand were much less anonymous, often times overlooking the village in a way to intentionally be visible to many in the village. They were meant to be visible, but often times were kept inside their own personal enclosure during the daytime.


Nkondi

Nkondi Nkondi (plural varies ''minkondi'', ''zinkondi'', or ''ninkondi'') are mystical statuettes made by the Kongo people of the Congo Basin, Congo region. Nkondi are a subclass of Nkisi, minkisi that are considered aggressive. Etymology The name '' ...
(plural forms , ) are a subclass of minkisi that are considered aggressive. Because many of the collected in the nineteenth century were activated by having nails driven into them, they were often called "nail fetishes" in travel writing, museum catalogs, and art history literature. Many also feature reflective surfaces, such as mirrors, on their stomach areas or the eyes, which are held to be the means of vision in the spirit world. They are often decorated with tubes of various substances. The most common of which being gunpowder. The idea behind this is for it to be used for killing ''ndoki'', who is associated with the powers of a witch. Although they can be made in many forms, the ones featuring a human statue with nails are the best described in anthropological and scholarly literature. are invoked to search out wrongdoing, enforce oaths, and cause or cure sicknesses. Perhaps the most common use was the locating and punishing of criminals, by hunting down wrongdoers and to avenging their crimes. An oath taker may declare him or herself vulnerable to the disease caused by an should he or she violate the oath. People who fall sick with diseases known to be associated with a particular may need to consult the responsible for mediating with that spirit to determine how to be cured. Although have probably been made since at least the sixteenth century, the specifically nailed figures, which have been the object of collection in Western museums, nailed were probably made primarily in the northern part of the Kongo cultural zone in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.


Modern impact

The figures acquired by the Europeans in the nineteenth century caused great interest in stimulating emerging trends in modern art and Bantu themes previously considered primitive or gruesome were now viewed as aesthetically interesting. The pieces became influential in art circles and many were acquired by art museums. The intentions of the who created were practical; that is, their characteristics were dictated by the need of the object to do the work it was required to do. Hence the nails that caused a sensation were never seen as decorative items but as a requirement of awakening the spirit or the gestures were part of a substantial metaphor of gestures found in Kongo culture. Recently some modern artists have also been interested in creating of their own, most notably
Renee Stout Renée Stout (born 1958) is an American sculptor and contemporary artist known for assemblage (art), assemblage artworks dealing with her personal history and African-American African-American art, heritage. Born in Kansas, raised in Pittsburgh, ...
, whose exhibition "Astonishment and Power" at the Smithsonian Institution coupled her own versions of with a commentary by noted anthropologist Wyatt MacGaffey. The
Republic of the Congo The Republic of the Congo, also known as Congo-Brazzaville, the Congo Republic or simply the Congo (the last ambiguously also referring to the neighbouring Democratic Republic of the Congo), is a country located on the western coast of Central ...
artist Trigo Piula painted several items in a "New Fetish" series, due to the rebuffing of traditional fetishes by people. It "is a way of engaging with my community and a way of denouncing things that I believe are impacting us, like television for example", he said.


Gallery


See also

* Kongo mythology


References


Bibliography

*Bassani, Ezio (1977). "Kongo Nail Fetishes from the Chiloango River Area," ''African Arts'' 10: 36-40 *Doutreloux, A. (1961). "Magie Yombe," ''Zaire'' 15: 45-57. *Dupré, Marie-Claude (1975). "Les système des forces ''nkisi'' chez le Kongo d'après le troisième volume de K. Laman," ''Africa'' 45: 12-28. *Janzen, John and Wyatt MacGaffey (1974). ''An Anthology of Kongo Religion'' Lawrence, KS: University of Kansas Press. *Laman, Karl (1953–68). ''The Kongo'' 4 volumes, Uppsala: Studia Ethnografica Uppsaliensia. *Lecomte Alain. Raoul Lehuard. Arts, Magie te Médecine en Afrique noire. Edition A. Lecomte. 2008 *Lehuard, Raoul. (1980). ''Fétiches à clou a Bas-Zaire.'' Arnouville. *MacGaffey, Wyatt, and John Janzen (1974). "Nkisi Figures of the BaKongo," ''African Arts'' 7: 87-89. *MacGaffey, Wyatt (1977). "Fetishism Revisted: Kongo ''nkisi'' in Sociological Perspective." ''Africa'' 47: 140-152. *MacGaffey, Wyatt (1988). "Complexity, Astonishment and Power: The Visual Vocabulary of Kongo ''Minkisi''" ''Journal of Southern African Studies''14: 188-204. *MacGaffey, Wyatt, ed. and transl. (1991), ''Art and Healing of the Bakongo Commented Upon by Themselves'' Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. *MacGaffey, Wyatt. "The Eyes of Understanding: Kongo ''Minkisi''," in Wyatt MacGaffey and M. Harris, eds, ''Astonishment and Power'' Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, pp. 21–103. *MacGaffey, Wyatt (1998). "'Magic, or as we usually say 'Art': A Framework for Comparing African and European Art," in Enid Schildkrout and Curtis Keim, eds. ''The Scramble for Art in Central Africa.'' Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, pp. 217–235. *MacGaffey, Wyatt (2000). ''Religion and Society in Central Africa: The BaKongo of Lower Zaire'' Chicago: University of Chicago Press. *MacGaffey, Wyatt (2000). ''Kongo Political Culture: The Conceptual Challenge of the Particular.'' Bloomington: Indiana University Press. *Vanhee, Hein (2000). "Agents of Order and Disorder: Kongo Minkisi," in Karel Arnaut, ed. ''Revisions: New Perspectives on African Collections of the Horniman Museum.'' London and Coimbra, pp. 89–106. *Van Wing, Joseph (1959). ''Etudes Bakongo'' Brussels: Descleė de Brouwer. *Volavkova, Zdenka (1972). "Nkisi Figures of the Lower Congo" ''African Arts'' 5: 52-89. {{Afro-American Religions African art Afro-American religion Animism Animism in Africa Bantu religion Kongo culture Kongo religion Magic items Religious objects Traditional African medicine