The Xuande Emperor (16 March 1399 31 January 1435), also known by his
temple name
Temple names are posthumous titles accorded to monarchs of the Sinosphere for the purpose of ancestor worship. The practice of honoring monarchs with temple names began during the Shang dynasty in China and had since been adopted by other dynas ...
as the Emperor Xuanzong of Ming, personal name Zhu Zhanji, was the fifth
emperor
The word ''emperor'' (from , via ) can mean the male ruler of an empire. ''Empress'', the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife (empress consort), mother/grandmother (empress dowager/grand empress dowager), or a woman who rules ...
of the
Ming dynasty
The Ming dynasty, officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming was the last imperial dynasty of ...
, reigning from 1425 to 1435. He was the son and successor of the
Hongxi Emperor
The Hongxi Emperor (16 August 1378 – 29 May 1425), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Renzong of Ming, personal name Zhu Gaochi, was the fourth emperor of the Ming dynasty, reigning from 1424 to 1425. He was the eldest son of the Y ...
.
The Xuande Emperor ascended to the throne following his father's brief reign. He had a passion for poetry and literature, and was also known for his skill in painting and warfare. Upon taking power, he made the decision to reverse his father's plan to relocate the capital from
Beijing
Beijing, Chinese postal romanization, previously romanized as Peking, is the capital city of China. With more than 22 million residents, it is the world's List of national capitals by population, most populous national capital city as well as ...
to
Nanjing
Nanjing or Nanking is the capital of Jiangsu, a province in East China. The city, which is located in the southwestern corner of the province, has 11 districts, an administrative area of , and a population of 9,423,400.
Situated in the Yang ...
. His uncle
Zhu Gaoxu
Zhu Gaoxu (30 December 1380 – 6 October 1426) was the second son of the Yongle Emperor and Empress Renxiaowen. During the Jingnan campaign, which brought his father to the throne, he proved himself to be a capable military leader. In 1426, he ...
rebelled against the young emperor but was ultimately unsuccessful. With the guidance of capable advisors, the Xuande Emperor personally led his army against his uncle and easily defeated him.
Early in the Xuande Emperor's reign, a prolonged war in
Jiaozhi
Jiaozhi (standard Chinese, pinyin: ''Jiāozhǐ''), or
,
was a historical region ruled by various Chinese dynasties, corresponding to present-day northern Vietnam. The kingdom of Nanyue (204–111 BC) set up the Jiaozhi Commandery (; , ch� ...
(present-day northern
Vietnam
Vietnam, officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam (SRV), is a country at the eastern edge of mainland Southeast Asia, with an area of about and a population of over 100 million, making it the world's List of countries and depende ...
) ended with Ming defeat and the Viet's independence. Relations with Southeast Asian nations stayed peaceful. Communication continued with Korea, and ties were established with Japan in 1432. The northern region faced minimal Mongol threats, with relations established with the Eastern Mongols and Western
Oirats
Oirats (; ) or Oirds ( ; ), formerly known as Eluts and Eleuths ( or ; zh, 厄魯特, ''Èlǔtè'') are the westernmost group of Mongols, whose ancestral home is in the Altai Mountains, Altai region of Siberia, Xinjiang and western Mongolia.
...
. The Xuande Emperor permitted
Zheng He
Zheng He (also romanized Cheng Ho; 1371–1433/1435) was a Chinese eunuch, admiral and diplomat from the early Ming dynasty, who is often regarded as the greatest admiral in History of China, Chinese history. Born into a Muslims, Muslim famil ...
's final Indian Ocean voyage in 1431–1433. During the Xuande Emperor's rule, eunuchs gained influence, particularly in the secret police. The emperor sought order through purges in the Censorate and military service reforms in 1428, but these did not fully address inefficiencies and low morale among hereditary soldiers.
The Xuande Emperor's government attempted to promote the use of paper money and discourage the use of coins and precious metals, but this effort was ultimately unsuccessful and paper money fell out of circulation. In the past, high taxes in heavily taxed prefectures, particularly in
Jiangnan
Jiangnan is a geographic area in China referring to lands immediately to the south of the lower reaches of the Yangtze River, including the southern part of its delta. The region encompasses the city of Shanghai, the southern part of Jiangsu ...
, had caused peasants to leave the economy. In response, the emperor lowered taxes and dispatched "grand coordinators" to the provinces to improve the performance of local authorities. These coordinators were responsible for addressing issues of injustice and
corruption
Corruption is a form of dishonesty or a criminal offense that is undertaken by a person or an organization that is entrusted in a position of authority to acquire illicit benefits or abuse power for one's gain. Corruption may involve activities ...
among tax collectors, as well as assessing the state of military units.
After a short reign of ten years, the emperor died due to a brief illness. His rule was marked by a period of relative peace, with no major internal or foreign conflicts. Later historians regarded his reign as the golden age of the dynasty.
Youth
Zhu Zhanji, the future Xuande Emperor, was born on 16 March 1399, as the eldest son of
Zhu Gaochi
The Hongxi Emperor (16 August 1378 – 29 May 1425), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Renzong of Ming, personal name Zhu Gaochi, was the fourth emperor of the Ming dynasty, reigning from 1424 to 1425. He was the eldest son of the Yon ...
(the future Hongxi Emperor) and
Lady Zhang. His father was the eldest son and heir to the then Prince of Yan,
Zhu Di
The Yongle Emperor (2 May 1360 – 12 August 1424), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Chengzu of Ming, personal name Zhu Di, was the third emperor of the Ming dynasty, reigning from 1402 to 1424. He was the fourth son of the Hongwu ...
(the future Yongle Emperor). In the summer of 1399, Zhu Di rebelled against the
Jianwen Emperor
The Jianwen Emperor (5 December 1377 – probably 13 July 1402), personal name Zhu Yunwen, also known by his temple name as the Emperor Huizong of Ming and by his posthumous name as the Emperor Hui of Ming, was the second emperor of the Ming d ...
, defeated him in a three-year civil war, and became the third Ming emperor in 1402.
As a child, Zhu Zhanji was trained in both military skills and Confucian literature by Hanlin academics. He was a talented man of letters, but his physical prowess, in contrast to his father's frail health, made him excel in military disciplines. This impressed the Yongle Emperor, who shared Zhu Zhanji's love for hunting and riding. The Yongle Emperor allowed Zhu Zhanji to accompany him on hunting trips and military inspections. In 1414, the emperor even took the prince with him on a campaign against the Mongols. Later, as emperor, Zhu Zhanji personally participated in skirmishes with the Mongols on the northern border. During one of these battles, he demonstrated his skill with a bow by shooting several Mongol warriors.
In 1411, Zhu Zhanji was appointed as ''Huang Taisun'' (; literally 'imperial grandson-heir') while his father had been ''Huang Taizi'' (; literally 'crown prince') since 1404. Zhu Zhanji's education in Confucian teachings and ways of government was overseen by Grand Secretary Hu Guang (). He also dedicated himself to studying military expeditions. In court intrigues, Zhu Zhanji consistently defended his father against the latter's younger brothers
Zhu Gaoxu
Zhu Gaoxu (30 December 1380 – 6 October 1426) was the second son of the Yongle Emperor and Empress Renxiaowen. During the Jingnan campaign, which brought his father to the throne, he proved himself to be a capable military leader. In 1426, he ...
and
Zhu Gaosui. This earned him their resentment. They were also concerned about his decisiveness, popularity with the Yongle Emperor, and close cooperation with the grand secretaries. They feared that their own positions would be threatened if Zhu Zhanji were to take over.
Beginning of reign
Accession
In August 1424, the Yongle Emperor died due to a stroke while returning from the fifth Mongol campaign in the Mongolian steppe. His son, the Hongxi Emperor, succeeded him as the new emperor of the Ming dynasty at the start of September. On 1 November 1424, the Hongxi Emperor named Zhu Zhanji as crown prince. In April 1425, he sent the prince to Nanjing to make preparations for the relocation of the capital from Beijing. However, the Hongxi Emperor's health deteriorated and he called the prince back, but died before his son could return.
On 27 June 1425, Zhu Zhanji officially ascended the imperial throne in Beijing, becoming the fifth emperor of the Ming dynasty. He chose to cancel the move of the capital to Nanjing due to his familiarity with Beijing, where he grew up, and his shared concern with the Yongle Emperor for the security of the northern border. He adopted the
era name
A regnal year is a year of the reign of a sovereign, from the Latin meaning kingdom, rule. Regnal years considered the date as an ordinal, not a cardinal number. For example, a monarch could have a first year of rule, a second year of rule, a t ...
Xuande, which means "proclamation of virtue".
Upon his accession, the new emperor's officials received him calmly, as he shared his father's idealistic conservative policies. He was not only a man of letters, but also a patron of the arts, and his reign was marked by significant cultural and political achievements. Despite his short temper, he was open to advice. He was a conscientious ruler and sought to balance the influence of various factions within the Ming elite–including civil officials, eunuchs, and generals. While he was capable of making strong decisions when necessary, he typically relied on the proposals of the grand secretaries and ministers when issuing imperial decrees. In contrast to his predecessors, he lived a life of luxury and debauchery, and upon his death, thousands of women were released from the palace.
Despite this, the Xuande Emperor successfully resolved major issues during the first two years of his reign, including his uncle Zhu Gaoxu's rebellion and the war in Jiaozhi. Under his rule, the northern border remained relatively stable and peaceful relations were maintained with neighboring states in Central, East, and Southeast Asia. This stability allowed for internal reforms to take place.
Zhu Gaoxu rebellion
Zhu Gaoxu challenged his nephew's accession, but unlike the Yongle Emperor's usurpation, he was unsuccessful in his attempt. Zhu Gaoxu was favored by the Yongle Emperor due to his military prowess. He proved to be a capable and energetic commander during the civil war of 1399–1402, but his arrogance and contempt towards his older brother, the Hongxi Emperor, caused tension. Zhu Gaoxu became bitter when he was not named as a successor in 1404. His disobedience eventually led to his banishment to the backwater city of Le'an in
Qingzhou
Qingzhou () Wade–Giles: Tsing-chou, sometimes written as Ching-chow-fu, formerly Yidu County (Yitu) (), is a county-level city, which is located in the west of the prefecture-level city of Weifang, in the central part of Shandong Province, Chin ...
prefecture,
Shandong
Shandong is a coastal Provinces of China, province in East China. Shandong has played a major role in Chinese history since the beginning of Chinese civilization along the lower reaches of the Yellow River. It has served as a pivotal cultural ...
. Believing that he was the rightful heir to the throne in 1424, instead of his ailing older brother, he began plotting a coup after his brother's death. Shortly after the Xuande Emperor's ascension to the throne on 2 September 1425, Zhu Gaoxu attempted to follow in the footsteps of the Yongle Emperor by rebelling against the emperor. He accused the Xuande Emperor of abusing his power by appointing individuals with noble titles to civil offices and appointing unworthy individuals. Underestimating his young nephew as a formidable opponent, he also failed to recognize the strength of the government, which had functioned effectively during the Yongle Emperor's extended absences on campaigns in Mongolia. Furthermore, he did not consider the significant decrease in the princes' influence that the Yongle Emperor had achieved. As a result, he was in a much weaker position than the Yongle Emperor had been in 1399.
The emperor initially hesitated, but eventually succumbed to pressure from Grand Secretary Yang Rong and other advisors, ultimately taking personal command of the punitive expedition on 9 September. A vanguard of 20,000 soldiers, led by the experienced general Xue Lu (; 1358–1430), laid siege to Le'an on 21 September. Despite the defenders' refusal to surrender, the imperial army successfully captured the city the following day. Zhu Gaoxu was subsequently brought to Beijing, demoted to a common subject, and ultimately tortured to death. In addition, over 600 of his followers were executed, while another 2,200 were deported to the border. An investigation revealed that other relatives of the emperor, including Zhu Gaoxu's brother Zhu Gaosui, were also involved in the rebellion, but they were not punished in order to preserve the prestige of the imperial family.
Administration
Grand secretaries, ministers, and eunuchs
The Xuande Emperor retained his father's advisers and ministers, but some offices underwent changes in their functions. The most significant reforms were made to the grand secretaries, who, during the Yongle Emperor's reign, only had an advisory role of reading the emperor's correspondence and drafting replies. During the reign of the Hongxi Emperor, they gained more influence and were now granted real executive power. This was formalized by granting ministerial titles to Yang Shiqi (minister of war), Huang Huai (minister of revenue), and Jin Youzi (minister of rites). Due to their long service to the state, they were highly respected and trusted by the emperor. Other close advisers to the emperor included Jian Yi (minister of personnel from 1402 to 1422 and 1423–1435) and Xia Yuanji (minister of revenue from 1402 to 1421 and 1424–1430). Even after the Xuande Emperor's death, the composition of the most influential officials and the grand secretaries remained unchanged. As a result, the top government was dominated by the same group of people from 1424 until the early 1440s.
The emperor established a process for routine and important decrees, in which proposals from various offices were reviewed and evaluated by the grand secretaries. These secretaries would then attach their recommendations for solving issues to the documents, which the emperor would typically approve and send to the relevant ministries for implementation. Significant government decisions were made during meetings between the emperor and the grand secretaries, during which the emperor would discuss and sign the drafts of his decrees. The ministers were responsible for carrying out these decrees. This system allowed for faster and more flexible decision-making, as the secretaries no longer needed to consult with the ministers beforehand.

At the same time, the influence of the eunuchs serving in the imperial palace and completely dependent on the emperor grew. During the reign of the
Hongwu Emperor
The Hongwu Emperor (21 October 1328– 24 June 1398), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Taizu of Ming, personal name Zhu Yuanzhang, courtesy name Guorui, was the List of emperors of the Ming dynasty, founding emperor of the Ming dyna ...
, the first Ming emperor, eunuchs were prohibited from communicating with government authorities. Even the Yongle Emperor maintained strict control over them. The Xuande Emperor, on the other hand, provided them with education and utilized them more in confidential correspondence. Despite opposition from officials, the eunuchs' business continued to thrive, benefiting the emperor's personal projects such as logging and shipbuilding. In situations where the emperor did not agree with the ideas of grand secretaries, he would use eunuchs to convey his orders to lower branches of the state administration. As the ministers did not question the emperor's orders, the eunuchs were able to give orders to the ministers on behalf of the sovereign without his knowledge. This abuse of power was a major concern for the Hongwu Emperor. The Xuande Emperor, however, maintained control over the eunuchs and was not afraid to execute them if they overstepped their boundaries. In the long run, this approach left room for eunuchs to exploit their power if a less assertive emperor was in power.
Censorate, provincial administration, and army
In terms of internal politics, the emperor focused on implementing reforms in the
Censorate
The Censorate was a high-level supervisory agency in History of China#Imperial China, Imperial China, first established during the Qin dynasty (221–207 BC). It was a highly effective agency during the Mongols, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty ( ...
, local administration, and the army. His main goal was to bring discipline and order to the state administration. He also took a keen interest in prominent criminal cases and often ordered judgments to be reviewed, resulting in justice for thousands of innocent people. In August 1428, he replaced the long-standing head of the Censorate, Liu Quan (), who had been in the position since 1415, with the honorable Gu Zuo (). Within a few months, Gu Zuo dismissed 43 censors from the Beijing and Nanjing offices, and Liu Quan himself was punished for numerous abuses of power. The Censorate underwent a reorganization, with changes made to procedures and an increase in the powers of the censors. Additionally, commissioners were appointed to oversee military farms, large construction projects, and military training camps near Beijing, as well as to manage taxes in South Zhili. These taxes were collected in the form of products, mainly rice, which was crucial for the nutrition of the people of Beijing.
After the purge of 1428, the censors became more efficient and open. This was evident in their thorough checks of all branches of the state administration, including both civil and military sectors. In fact, over 240 officials were dismissed between 1424 and 1434, which was three times the number of dismissals in the previous decade. While officials and censors who abused their powers were punished, they were not executed.
During the reign of the Xuande Emperor, the regional administration saw a regular posting of
grand coordinators (''xunfu''). These officials were responsible for coordinating the work of the three provincial offices—civil, military, and surveillance. This practice of having coordinators in the regional administration was not new, as previous emperors had also employed them. For example, the Hongwu Emperor had sent his crown prince,
Zhu Biao
Zhu Biao (10 October 1355 17 May 1392) was the eldest son of the Hongwu Emperor, the founder of the Ming dynasty. Upon the establishment of the Ming dynasty in 1368, Zhu Biao was appointed as crown prince. In order to prepare for his future rei ...
, to "tour and pacify", while the Yongle Emperor had sent both the Hongxi and Xuande emperors to the provinces. In 1421, the Yongle Emperor even sent 26 high-ranking government officials to the provinces. The Xuande Emperor took this practice a step further by sending these officials on long-term assignments, rather than just once like his predecessors. For example, in September 1425, he sent two commissioners to
South Zhili
Nanzhili, formerly romanized as and also known as South or Southern Zhili or Chih-li, was a historical province of the Ming Empire. Its capital was Nanjing, from which it is also sometimes known as Nanjing or Nanking Province. Nanzhili co ...
and
Zhejiang
)
, translit_lang1_type2 =
, translit_lang1_info2 = ( Hangzhounese) ( Ningbonese) (Wenzhounese)
, image_skyline = 玉甑峰全貌 - panoramio.jpg
, image_caption = View of the Yandang Mountains
, image_map = Zhejiang i ...
, and in 1430, they were sent to
Hunan
Hunan is an inland Provinces of China, province in Central China. Located in the middle reaches of the Yangtze watershed, it borders the Administrative divisions of China, province-level divisions of Hubei to the north, Jiangxi to the east, Gu ...
,
Shanxi
Shanxi; Chinese postal romanization, formerly romanised as Shansi is a Provinces of China, province in North China. Its capital and largest city of the province is Taiyuan, while its next most populated prefecture-level cities are Changzhi a ...
, and
Sichuan
Sichuan is a province in Southwestern China, occupying the Sichuan Basin and Tibetan Plateau—between the Jinsha River to the west, the Daba Mountains to the north, and the Yunnan–Guizhou Plateau to the south. Its capital city is Cheng ...
. They were also dispatched to
Jiangxi
; Gan: )
, translit_lang1_type2 =
, translit_lang1_info2 =
, translit_lang1_type3 =
, translit_lang1_info3 =
, image_map = Jiangxi in China (+all claims hatched).svg
, mapsize = 275px
, map_caption = Location ...
and
Shaanxi
Shaanxi is a Provinces of China, province in north Northwestern China. It borders the province-level divisions of Inner Mongolia to the north; Shanxi and Henan to the east; Hubei, Chongqing, and Sichuan to the south; and Gansu and Ningxia to t ...
around 1426.
The role of grand coordinators was not an independent function, but rather a mandate imposed on high-ranking officials of the central authorities. Typically, these officials held the rank of deputy minister, particularly in the military, and later also held high positions in the Censorate. They also held the rank of (co-)superintendant of military affairs. This gave them the authority to oversee civil, military, and surveillance offices. The immediate result of implementing grand coordinators was the transfer of command over troops in the provinces to civilian hands. The system of grand coordinators reached its final form during the Zhengtong era (1436–1449), when they were assigned to all provinces except
Fujian
Fujian is a provinces of China, province in East China, southeastern China. Fujian is bordered by Zhejiang to the north, Jiangxi to the west, Guangdong to the south, and the Taiwan Strait to the east. Its capital is Fuzhou and its largest prefe ...
and six of the nine frontier garrisons on the northern border.
Considerable problems persisted in the army during this time period. Corrupt officers were known to bring in poor conscripts for campaigns, while allowing the wealthy to avoid service for a fee. These officers also embezzled the salaries of the soldiers and used them as personal servants. The supply of military farms was also a major issue, as it often dropped and made it difficult to properly equip the army. Additionally, capable officers had limited opportunities for advancement during times of peace, resulting in the army being led by individuals who inherited their positions without merit. These commanders, who had not experienced war themselves, often neglected to properly train their soldiers and instead used them for their own personal needs. This led to a decline in discipline, an increase in desertion, and a decrease in the overall strength of the army.
In an attempt to address these issues, inspection officials were appointed in 1427 to verify the condition and numbers of the army detachments and restore discipline, but their efforts were largely ineffective. The local military headquarters also came under the supervision of control authorities, but this did not have much impact either. In 1429, the emperor attempted to boost morale by holding a large military parade with guard units from the Beijing garrison and three training camps located around Beijing, but this did not have a significant impact on the morale of the army. The years of peace had led to a decline in the quality of training, and the emperor's leniency towards guilty officers only worsened the situation. The consequences of this decline in the army's strength were not fully realized until 1449, at the
Battle of Tumu
The Crisis of the Tumu Fortress, also known as the Tumu Crisis, or the Jisi Incident, was a border conflict between the Oirat Mongols and the Ming dynasty. In July 1449, Esen Taishi, leader of the Oirat Mongols, launched a large-scale, three-pron ...
, when the Mongols were able to defeat the Ming army led by
Emperor Yingzong and even take the emperor prisoner.
Economic policy
Finance and currency
In the late 1420s, the Xuande Emperor's government faced significant financial challenges. The ongoing war in Jiaozhi drained a significant amount of resources, and the subsequent loss of mineral wealth further exacerbated the situation. The imposition of high taxes and levies placed an unbearable burden on the economy of wealthy regions in China, resulting in a decline in government revenue. For instance, Suzhou, the economic hub of China, was three years behind in paying its taxes by the late 1420s. Moreover, the profitability of silver and copper mines declined in the early 1430s. To address these difficulties, the government attempted to promote the use of paper money, reduce and reform taxes, and limit government spending.
The Hongwu Emperor established paper money, known as ''baochao'' banknotes, as the primary form of currency. For smaller transactions, copper coins were also used, which were circulated alongside state notes during the Yongle era. However, both the coins and the copper used to make them were in short supply. In contrast, the government printed large quantities of banknotes, causing their value to rapidly decrease. By 1425, ''baochao'' banknotes were only worth 2% of their nominal value. In an unsuccessful attempt to promote paper currency, the Hongxi Emperor closed precious metal mines. However, the Xuande government allowed for a partial resumption of mining.
The Xuande Emperor and his advisers implemented various measures in an attempt to support the state's economy. One such measure was the pressure placed on the use of copper coins, which were seen as competition for paper money. As a result, copper coins were almost completely phased out of circulation. In addition, Minister of Revenue Xia Yuanji suggested a solution to combat the decline in the value of government banknotes by increasing business taxes and only accepting payment in government banknotes, but this approach did not yield the desired results. The government then shifted to a more cautious strategy, selling licenses to trade salt for state coins. This measure also failed to increase the value of state stamps. The government introduced new trade fees and customs duties on the Grand Canal, which could only be paid in shillings, but these fees had a negative impact on trade. As a result, there was strong opposition to these fees and they were eventually abolished after a few years. Despite the government's efforts, these measures did not effectively support the state's economy. The value of paper money continued to decline. By the 1430s, banknotes were no longer in use and were only used to pay employees to a limited extent. They were also withdrawn as a mandatory form of payment for trade fees. Ultimately, these measures had little impact on the country's economy.
The widespread distrust of paper currency and the scarcity of coins resulted in a growing trade in silver. Despite the government's opposition to replacing copper coins and paper currency with silver, attempts to prohibit the use of silver in commercial transactions were unsuccessful, but silver alone was not enough to meet the demands of the market. It was primarily used for large payments and paying taxes, while copper coins remained the preferred currency for smaller transactions in cities.
In 1433, the Xuande government closed the mints, causing disruptions throughout the region from Japan to Java. This halt in coin production led to a surge in counterfeit coins and hoarding of precious metals. Despite the dissatisfaction of officials in Beijing, they were unable to suppress the circulation of coins produced by private entrepreneurs, but they also did not make the decision to resume state production of coins. Towards the end of the Xuande era, the government began to tolerate the use of silver. In 1433, Governor of South Zhili Zhou Chen began to collect land taxes in silver in the most heavily burdened prefectures of Jiangnan.
Taxation in Jiangnan and the empire
One of the areas that the emperor focused on for reform was
fiscal policy
In economics and political science, fiscal policy is the use of government revenue collection ( taxes or tax cuts) and expenditure to influence a country's economy. The use of government revenue expenditures to influence macroeconomic variab ...
, particularly in Jiangnan. This region, which includes prefectures such as Suzhou,
Hangzhou
Hangzhou, , Standard Mandarin pronunciation: ; formerly romanized as Hangchow is a sub-provincial city in East China and the capital of Zhejiang province. With a population of 13 million, the municipality comprises ten districts, two counti ...
,
Songjiang Songjiang, from the Chinese for "Pine River" and formerly romanized as Sungkiang, usually refers to one of the following areas within the municipal limits of Shanghai:
* Songjiang, Shanghai, a present suburban district of Shanghai
* Songjiang Pre ...
,
Jiaxing
Jiaxing (), alternately romanized as Kashing, is a prefecture-level city in northern Zhejiang province, China. Lying on the Grand Canal of China, Jiaxing borders Hangzhou to the southwest, Huzhou to the west, Shanghai to the northeast, and the p ...
, and
Zhenjiang
Zhenjiang, alternately romanized as Chinkiang, is a prefecture-level city in Jiangsu Province, China. It lies on the southern bank of the Yangtze River near its intersection with the Grand Canal. It is opposite Yangzhou (to its north) and ...
, contributed a significant portion of the empire's land tax, accounting for a quarter of the total amount (despite the Ming dynasty having almost 160 prefectures). In Suzhou Prefecture alone, even after a reduction in the tax rate in 1393, the land tax still made up almost a tenth of the empire's total tax quota, equivalent to 2.81 million ''
dan'' of rice (with 1 ''dan'' being equivalent to 107.4 liters). Additionally, Songjiang Prefecture contributed 4.14% of the total tax quota.
During the Yongle Emperor's reign, the country saw a ten percent increase in land tax revenue, which was likely distributed evenly throughout the country. However, this increase in taxes proved to be too much for the peasants in Suzhou and Songjiang, leading to a growing number of tax arrears. As if this was not enough, natural disasters struck towards the end of the Yongle era, causing even more peasants to abandon their land. By 1422–28, the amount of tax arrears had reached several million ''dan'' of rice annually. This posed a serious threat to the supply of Beijing, which relied on tax rice shipped from Jiangnan via the Grand Canal. In an effort to maintain a steady supply of rice, the government decided to reduce taxes and forgive a portion of the arrears. In August 1426, imperial commissioner Zhou Gan () was tasked with investigating the situation on the ground. He proposed a plan to reduce taxes, eliminate corruption in tax collection, and improve local administration with the help of experts sent from headquarters, led by a special commissioner. While the reduction of taxes was supported by the great secretaries, the Ministry of Revenue was able to delay its implementation for four years. Finally, in May 1430, the relevant imperial decree was issued.
In October 1430, the emperor dispatched a group of high-ranking officials (''
zongdu
Zongdu (Tsung-tu; ; Manchu: ; usually translated as Governor-General or Viceroy) were high-level officials responsible for overseeing the governors of several provinces in Ming and Qing China. One viceroy usually administered several provinces ...
'') to oversee the collection of taxes. Among them was Zhou Chen (), Left Vice Minister of Works, who was sent to South Zhili. Along with Kuang Zhong (), the prefect of Suzhou since June 1430, they played a significant role in implementing tax reforms in Jiangnan. During their visit, they witnessed the aftermath of a large-scale migration from the region, with some areas losing up to ninety percent of their peasant population. As a result, the remaining households were burdened with the same total amount of taxes. To address this issue, Zhou Chen introduced five major measures:
* unified measures and weights to prevent collectors from cheating;
* in each county, warehouses were built to collect the tax rice; previously, it had been stored in barns by tax captains (landowners responsible for transporting rice from villages to designated locations, such as the capital);
* the government introduced a tax supplement designated for covering the costs of transportation along the Grand Canal to Beijing, thereby easing the burden on taxpayers who only transported rice to the canal, rather than all the way to Beijing;
* in each county, restored support granaries where surplus crops were stored in fertile years in case of
famine
A famine is a widespread scarcity of food caused by several possible factors, including, but not limited to war, natural disasters, crop failure, widespread poverty, an Financial crisis, economic catastrophe or government policies. This phenom ...
;
* introduced the collection of a portion of taxes not in rice, but in silver and fabrics, which was beneficial for both taxpayers and the government, and in the southern regions of the empire, it promoted the monetization of the economy and the textile industry.
The court generally agreed with the proposals of Zhou Chen and Kuang Zhong, but the Ministry of Revenue blocked them. It was not until 1433 that they received imperial approval to reduce taxes in Suzhou by a quarter. Other reforms in the same direction continued after 1436.
During natural disasters and epidemics, the Xuande government was known for its swift and effective response in aiding the population. Specially appointed commissioners oversaw the distribution of grain from government stocks, as well as implementing a 20–40% reduction in land taxes and forgiving other taxes for a period of one to two years. These actions were highly praised and recorded in the official history of the dynasty.
In comparison to previous reigns, land tax revenue during the Xuande era decreased to 30 million ''dan'' of rice, which was 8% less than during the Hongxi era and 5% less than during the Yongle era. The trend continued in the Zhengtong era (1436–1449) with a further reduction of 10–15%. By the end of the Ming dynasty, the land tax remained at 25–28 million ''dan''. This reduction in expenses allowed the state to maintain a balanced
budget
A budget is a calculation plan, usually but not always financial plan, financial, for a defined accounting period, period, often one year or a month. A budget may include anticipated sales volumes and revenues, resource quantities including tim ...
during the Xuande era, a feat that was not always achieved in later eras.
Foreign policy
Jiaozhi/Đại Việt
During the early years of the Xuande era, a major issue that arose was the war in
Jiaozhi Province
Jiaozhi Provincial Administration Commission (交趾等處承宣布政使司), commonly abbreviated as Jiaozhi (交趾), was a provincial-level administrative body established by the Ming dynasty in Vietnam during the Fourth Era of Northern Domi ...
, or
Đại Việt under Ming rule (present-day northern Vietnam), which had been ongoing since 1408. In 1425, Ming troops, led by newly appointed commanders Li An () and Chen Zhi, suffered multiple defeats at the hands of the Viets, led by
Lê Lợi
Lê Lợi (, chữ Hán: 黎利; 10 September 1385 – 5 October 1433), also known by his temple name as Lê Thái Tổ (黎太祖) and by his pre-imperial title Bình Định vương (平定王; "Prince of Pacification"), was a Vietnamese peopl ...
. In response, the emperor appointed a new commander, Wang Tong (), and a new head of civil administration, minister Chen Qia (), in May 1426. Seeking advice from his entourage, the emperor recalled the Hongwu Emperor's prohibition on invading Đại Việt (and other countries) and the Yongle Emperor's original goal of restoring the
Trần dynasty
The Trần dynasty (Vietnamese language, Vietnamese: Nhà Trần, chữ Nôm: 茹陳; Vietnamese language, Vietnamese: triều Trần, chữ Hán: ikt:朝ikt:陳, 朝wikt:陳, 陳), officially Đại Việt (Chữ Hán: 大越), was a List ...
. Ministers Jian Yi and Xia Yuanji advocated for using military force to suppress Viet resistance, while grand secretaries Yang Shiqi and Yang Yong suggested withdrawing from Jiaozhi, but due to conflicting opinions, the meeting ended without a resolution.

In the winter of 1426, the Ming army suffered heavy losses of 20,000–30,000 men due to Viet attacks. To counter this threat, the emperor issued orders in January 1427 for Mu Sheng, the commander of Yunnan troops, to gather an army in Yunnan and bring it to Jiaozhi. Additionally, General Liu Sheng () was tasked with leading a second army from Guangxi. The experienced Huang Fu was appointed to oversee the civil administration of the province. (Huang Fu had previously administered Jiaozhi from 1407 to 1424). Meanwhile, Lê Lợi continued to expand his operations into the Red River Valley, posing a threat to Đông Quan, the capital of the province (present-day
Hanoi
Hanoi ( ; ; ) is the Capital city, capital and List of cities in Vietnam, second-most populous city of Vietnam. The name "Hanoi" translates to "inside the river" (Hanoi is bordered by the Red River (Asia), Red and Black River (Asia), Black Riv ...
). Despite this, the Ming garrison successfully defended against the attack on Đông Quan, but due to the incompetence of Wang Tong, the Ming forces failed to capitalize on their success, allowing the Viets to prepare for the arrival of reinforcements.
On 30 September 1427, Liu Sheng's army reached the border, where Lê Lợi unexpectedly proposed handing over power to
Trần Cảo, a descendant of the Trần dynasty. This proposal was made under the condition that Trần Cảo would rule under Chinese suzerainty. However, Lê Lợi had ulterior motives and immediately lured Liu Sheng's army into a trap, resulting in a crushing defeat. The Chinese army suffered heavy losses, with approximately 70,000 men killed. In the aftermath of this disaster, Wang Tong, without the emperor's knowledge, accepted Lê Lợi's proposal and began withdrawing troops from Jiaozhi on 12 November. Meanwhile, Mu Sheng had reached the upper reaches of the Red River and began constructing ships to advance downstream, but upon learning of Wang Tong's withdrawal, Mu Sheng retreated back to China.
On 16 November 1427, the Xuande Emperor was informed of Lê Lợi's offer. Despite divided opinions from his advisers, the emperor quickly made the decision to accept the proposal on 20 November. A delegation was immediately sent to Jiaozhi to negotiate the details. This move was seen as a surrender by the Ming after their defeat in battle, solidifying Lê Lợi's prestige. Lê Lợi informed the negotiators that Trần Cảo had died, another member of the Trần family was no longer alive, and they should recognize him as the king. He also refused to repatriate Chinese prisoners and officials. The Xuande Emperor, however, refused to recognize Lê Lợi as the ruler of Đại Việt and demanded the return of the Trần dynasty. It was not until 1431, when Lê Lợi sent a humble letter, that the Xuande Emperor appointed him as "administrator of the affairs of the state of Annan" (Annan being the Chinese name for Đại Việt). Lê Lợi's son was officially recognized and given a royal title by the Beijing government in November 1436, after the Xuande Emperor's death.
The Ming's withdrawal from Jiaozhi was a blow to their pride and prestige, but it also provided much-needed financial relief. For the Viets, it was a significant victory that left a lasting impact on their culture and state. The two decades of Ming rule and education had a transformative effect on Đại Việt. The long-term warfare also resulted in a strong and efficient Viet army, which would later be challenged by
Champa
Champa (Cham language, Cham: ꨌꩌꨛꨩ, چمڤا; ; 占城 or 占婆) was a collection of independent Chams, Cham Polity, polities that extended across the coast of what is present-day Central Vietnam, central and southern Vietnam from ...
, located further south.
Southeast Asia and the Indian Ocean

Envoys from Southeast Asian countries, such as Champa,
Java
Java is one of the Greater Sunda Islands in Indonesia. It is bordered by the Indian Ocean to the south and the Java Sea (a part of Pacific Ocean) to the north. With a population of 156.9 million people (including Madura) in mid 2024, proje ...
,
Ayutthaya
Ayutthaya, Ayudhya, or Ayuthia may refer to:
* Ayutthaya Kingdom, a Thai kingdom that existed from 1350 to 1767
** Ayutthaya Historical Park, the ruins of the old capital city of the Ayutthaya Kingdom
* Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya province (locall ...
, and
Sumatra
Sumatra () is one of the Sunda Islands of western Indonesia. It is the largest island that is fully within Indonesian territory, as well as the list of islands by area, sixth-largest island in the world at 482,286.55 km2 (182,812 mi. ...
, regularly visited Beijing, but there were no envoys from the Indian Ocean coast. The ban on unauthorized trade and overseas travel by subjects was still in place, but it was not effectively enforced.
Government officials strongly opposed long-distance voyages and influenced the emperor to cancel a shipbuilding program in 1429, led by the emperor's eunuchs. A few months later, after the death of a leading opponent of the voyages, Xia Yuanji, the emperor changed his mind. The last of Zheng He's great expeditions took place in 1430–33, possibly to restore the empire's prestige after their retreat from Jiaozhi. Zheng He brought envoys from
Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka, officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, also known historically as Ceylon, is an island country in South Asia. It lies in the Indian Ocean, southwest of the Bay of Bengal, separated from the Indian subcontinent, ...
,
Cochin
Kochi ( , ), formerly known as Cochin ( ), is a major port city along the Malabar Coast of India bordering the Laccadive Sea. It is part of the district of Ernakulam in the state of Kerala. The city is also commonly referred to as Ernaku ...
,
Calicut
Kozhikode (), also known as Calicut, is a city along the Malabar Coast in the state of Kerala in India. Known as the City of Spices, Kozhikode is listed among the City of Literature, UNESCO's Cities of Literature.
It is the nineteenth large ...
,
Hormuz,
Aden
Aden () is a port city located in Yemen in the southern part of the Arabian peninsula, on the north coast of the Gulf of Aden, positioned near the eastern approach to the Red Sea. It is situated approximately 170 km (110 mi) east of ...
, the
East Africa
East Africa, also known as Eastern Africa or the East of Africa, is a region at the eastern edge of the Africa, African continent, distinguished by its unique geographical, historical, and cultural landscape. Defined in varying scopes, the regi ...
n coast, and other countries to China, which pleased the emperor.
After the Xuande Emperor's death, the Ming did not undertake any further long-distance expeditions. These expeditions were only supported by the palace eunuchs, as the Confucian officials were strongly opposed to them. With the opening of the Grand Canal, the need to transport rice by sea to the north disappeared, leading officials to view naval expeditions as expensive and unnecessary imperial ventures. This decision had long-term negative consequences, as it weakened the morale and strength of the Ming fleet, leaving them later unable to effectively deal with the
wokou
''Wokou'' ( zh, c=, p=Wōkòu; ; Hepburn romanization, Hepburn: ; ; literal Chinese translation: "dwarf bandits"), which translates to "Japanese pirates", were pirates who raided the coastlines of China and Korea from the 13th century to the 17 ...
pirates. Additionally, it also had a negative impact on China's influence in Southeast Asia and the Indian Ocean. As a result, the end of the early Ming period marked the end of China's 300-year dominance in the East Asian seas.
Mongolia
During the Xuande era, there was relative calm on the northern border. The Jurchens, who lived in present-day Manchuria, acknowledged Ming sovereignty and did not oppose the expeditions led by eunuch
Yishiha
Yishiha (; also Išiqa or Isiha; Jurchen: ) ( fl. 1409–1451) was a Jurchen eunuch of the Ming dynasty of China. He served the Ming emperors who commissioned several expeditions down the Songhua and Amur Rivers during the period of Ming rul ...
. These expeditions even reached the mouth of the
Amur River
The Amur River () or Heilong River ( zh, s=黑龙江) is a perennial river in Northeast Asia, forming the natural border between the Russian Far East and Northeast China (historically the Outer and Inner Manchuria). The Amur ''proper'' is ...
. The Eastern Mongols were ruled by
Arughtai Arughtai, also known as Alutai (; d. 1434), was a chingsang of the Northern Yuan dynasty who fought against the Yongle Emperor of the Ming dynasty and the Four Oirats.
According to the Mongolian and Chinese chronicles, there are similar named fig ...
, while the Western Mongolian Oirats were led by Toghon. However, Arughtai was not recognized by the Uriankhai Mongols in the southeast of Mongolia. As a result, he maintained friendly relations with the Ming dynasty and engaged in trade, exchanging horses for silk and tea.
In October 1428, the Uriankhaians were known to occasionally raid the borderlands, but during an inspection in which the emperor was accompanied by 3,000 soldiers, they were successfully driven away. By May 1430, the Chinese had fortified cities along the border between China and the steppe (along the later
Great Wall of China
The Great Wall of China (, literally "ten thousand ''li'' long wall") is a series of fortifications in China. They were built across the historical northern borders of ancient Chinese states and Imperial China as protection against vario ...
) south of Kaiping (formerly the Yuan capital of Shangdu and the last Ming garrison in the steppe) and then withdrew from it. This shortened the border, providing relief to exhausted troops, but was later criticized by historians. This shift in the border to the south and the loss of a base in the steppe made it much more challenging for the Chinese to conduct raids against the Mongols.
The Ming government had hoped that the Eastern Mongols would be able to defeat the Oirats, but the Oirats proved to be stronger and launched repeated attacks against the Eastern Mongols. In September 1434, the Oirats were successful in defeating and killing Arughtai. After this victory, Toghon maintained good relations with the Ming dynasty.
Japan and Korea
The Xuande Emperor made repeated attempts to establish relations with Japan, but the shogun
Ashikaga Yoshimochi
was the fourth ''shōgun'' of the Ashikaga shogunate who reigned from 1394 to 1423 during the Muromachi period of Japan. Yoshimochi was the son of the third ''shōgun'', Ashikaga Yoshimitsu, and the elder brother of the sixth third ''shōgun'', ...
() adamantly refused any communication. However, his successor
Yoshinori () was very interested in trade with China. In 1432, using the mediation of the king of the Ryukyu Islands, Ming envoys arrived at the shogun's court. The first Japanese delegation arrived in China in June 1433, bringing with them horses, armor, swords, and other goods. They also brought 2.6 tons of copper. The Ming government paid for these goods with banknotes (''baochao''), which the Japanese immediately exchanged for silk (one-fifth) and copper coins (the rest).
The Ming authorities only accepted Japanese traders at the port of
Ningbo
Ningbo is a sub-provincial city in northeastern Zhejiang province, People's Republic of China. It comprises six urban districts, two satellite county-level cities, and two rural counties, including several islands in Hangzhou Bay and the Eas ...
. After 1433, Japanese delegations arriving in China were primarily composed of agents of
daimyos, monasteries, and temples who were eager to access the Chinese market. Along with luxury goods, they were particularly interested in Chinese copper coins. This trade proved to be highly profitable for the Japanese, leading to a lasting relationship between the two countries until 1529. However, there were frequent disputes over the valuation of Japanese goods and the Ming government often complained about the Japanese government's inability to control piracy. Despite this, the shoguns were unable to effectively intervene against the pirates due to a lack of resources.
Relations with
Korea
Korea is a peninsular region in East Asia consisting of the Korean Peninsula, Jeju Island, and smaller islands. Since the end of World War II in 1945, it has been politically Division of Korea, divided at or near the 38th parallel north, 3 ...
were generally peaceful, with regular delegations traveling between the two capitals. According to Chinese records, the emperor often requested horses from the Koreans, while also asking them not to send gold, silver, or other unusual gifts that were not produced in their country. Additionally, the emperor rejected a request to admit Korean students to the
Imperial University in Beijing, instead donating a collection of Confucian classics and historical literature to Korea as a replacement. While the official Chinese description of the relationship emphasizes mutual respect, Korean records highlight the emperor's personal motives for his requests—including a desire for women, falcons, hunting dogs, tigers, cooks, and eunuchs.
The emperor as an artist
The Xuande Emperor was an ideal combination of the virtues of a Chinese warrior and scholar. He was a talented artist and poet, and often found more enjoyment in art and leisure than in his duties as ruler. He was known for his skill in calligraphy, poetry, writing, and painting. He painted landscapes, figures, "grass and insects", and particularly enjoyed the genre of "
flowers and birds".
He was especially skilled in depicting animals, particularly dogs. He drew inspiration from the techniques and styles of literati painters of his time, particularly
Xia Chang. He typically used ink without the use of colors, choosing subjects with symbolic and allegorical meanings.
He was considered the best painter among Chinese emperors since
Emperor Huizong of Song
Emperor Huizong of Song (7 June 1082 – 4 June 1135), personal name Zhao Ji, was the eighth emperor of the Song dynasty of China and the penultimate emperor of the Northern Song dynasty. He was also a very well-known painter, poet and calli ...
().
Some of the Xuande Emperor's works are held by prestigious institutions such as the
National Palace Museum
The National Palace Museum, also known as Taipei Palace Museum, is a national museum headquartered in Taipei, Taiwan. Founded in Beijing in 1925, the museum was re-established in Shilin District, Shilin, Taipei, in 1965, later expanded with a S ...
in Taipei, the
Palace Museum
The Palace Museum (), also known as the Beijing Palace Museum, is a large national museum complex housed in the Forbidden City at the core of Beijing, China. With , the museum inherited the imperial royal palaces from the Ming and Qing dynast ...
in Beijing, and formerly in the
Arthur M. Sackler Museum
The Harvard Art Museums are part of Harvard University and comprise three museums: the Fogg Museum (established in 1895), the Busch-Reisinger Museum (established in 1903), and the Arthur M. Sackler Museum (established in 1985), and four research ...
(a division of
Harvard Art Museum
The Harvard Art Museums are part of Harvard University and comprise three museums: the Fogg Museum (established in 1895), the Busch-Reisinger Museum (established in 1903), and the Arthur M. Sackler Museum (established in 1985), and four research ...
) in Cambridge, Massachusetts. In 2007, Robert D. Mowry, the curator of Chinese Art Collections at the Arthur M. Sackler Museum, described him as "the only Ming emperor who displayed genuine artistic talent and interest". The Dutch orientalist
Robert van Gulik
Robert Hans van Gulik (, 9 August 1910 – 24 September 1967) was a Dutch orientalist, diplomat, musician (of the guqin), and writer, best known for the Judge Dee historical mysteries, the protagonist of which he borrowed from the 18th-century ...
(1910–1967) praised one of the Xuande Emperor's paintings, ''Gibbons at play'', as "skilfully painted" although "not a beautiful work". The vibrant paintings suggest that the emperor painted from real animals, likely kept in the palace gardens.
Not only did the emperor engage with art, but he also actively supported and influenced artistic trends of his time. He personally evaluated the works of painters applying for court positions and aimed to elevate court painting to the level of the peak of
Song era culture in the early 12th century.
He also financially supported several calligraphers and painters, such as
Shang Xi, by appointing them as officers of the Imperial Guard.
His reign is also renowned for its exceptional craftsmanship in bronzes and porcelain, particularly the famous
Jingdezhen
Jingdezhen is a prefecture-level city in eastern Jiangxi province with a total population of 1,669,057 (2018), bordering Anhui to the north. It is known as the "Porcelain Capital" because it has been producing Chinese ceramics for at least 1,0 ...
blue and white.
File:Zhu-Zhanji-Gibbons-at-Play.jpg, ''Gibbons at play'' (; 1427), National Palace Museum
The National Palace Museum, also known as Taipei Palace Museum, is a national museum headquartered in Taipei, Taiwan. Founded in Beijing in 1925, the museum was re-established in Shilin District, Shilin, Taipei, in 1965, later expanded with a S ...
, Taipei
, nickname = The City of Azaleas
, image_map =
, map_caption =
, pushpin_map = Taiwan#Asia#Pacific Ocean#Earth
, coordinates =
, subdivision_type = Country ...
, Taiwan
File:Zhu Zhanji-Mouse and Stone.jpg, ''Mouse and Stone'' (; 1427), The Palace Museum
The Palace Museum (), also known as the Beijing Palace Museum, is a large national museum complex housed in the Forbidden City at the core of Beijing, China. With , the museum inherited the imperial royal palaces from the Ming dynasty, Ming and ...
, Beijing
File:Xuande-salukis-092x0507 01lg.jpg, ''Two Saluki Hounds'' (; 1427), Harvard Art Museum
The Harvard Art Museums are part of Harvard University and comprise three museums: the Fogg Museum (established in 1895), the Busch-Reisinger Museum (established in 1903), and the Arthur M. Sackler Museum (established in 1985), and four research ...
, United States
File:明 朱瞻基 三阳开泰轴.jpg, ''Three Yang oats
The oat (''Avena sativa''), sometimes called the common oat, is a species of cereal grain grown for its seed, which is known by the same name (usually in the plural). Oats appear to have been domesticated as a secondary crop, as their seed ...
an Auspicious Start (to the New Year)'' (; 1429), National Palace Museum
File:明 朱瞻基 御临黄筌花鸟卷.jpg, National Palace Museum
File:Xuande Bamboo.jpg, '' Marquis Wu in Repose'' (), The Palace Museum
Death and succession
In the autumn and winter of 1434, the emperor led a military detachment on a tour of the northern border, but upon returning to Beijing, he fell ill. He was sick for almost two months, until he suddenly died on 31 January 1435. He died in the Palace of Heavenly Purity in the
Forbidden City
The Forbidden City () is the Chinese Empire, imperial Chinese palace, palace complex in the center of the Imperial City, Beijing, Imperial City in Beijing, China. It was the residence of 24 Ming dynasty, Ming and Qing dynasty, Qing dynasty L ...
.
He was given the
posthumous name
A posthumous name is an honorary Personal name, name given mainly to revered dead people in East Asian cultural sphere, East Asian culture. It is predominantly used in Asian countries such as China, Korea, Vietnam, Japan, Malaysia and Thailand. ...
Emperor Zhang (; 'Distinguished Emperor') and the
temple name
Temple names are posthumous titles accorded to monarchs of the Sinosphere for the purpose of ancestor worship. The practice of honoring monarchs with temple names began during the Shang dynasty in China and had since been adopted by other dynas ...
Xuanzong (; 'Penetrating Ancestor'). He was buried in the Jing Mausoleum in the
Ming tombs
The Ming tombs are a collection of mausoleums built by the emperors of the Ming dynasty of China. The first Ming emperor's tomb is located near his capital Nanjing. However, the majority of the Ming tombs are located in a cluster near Beijing ...
near Beijing.
The Xuande Emperor's successor was his elder son,
Zhu Qizhen, who had been created crown prince in May 1428. He became emperor at the age of eight. However, the rules established by the Hongwu Emperor did not anticipate the accession of a child emperor, making it impossible to appoint a regent to govern the country in place of a minor monarch. As a result, the Xuande Emperor's decision was to have senior officials consult on government matters with the young emperor's grandmother, Grand Empress Dowager Zhang, who effectively ruled the empire. Through her cooperation with the grand secretaries, state policy remained consistent until the early 1440s.
Legacy
The Xuande Emperor was a capable, active, and skilled ruler. Some civil officials criticized his indulgence in frequently sending eunuchs to the southern provinces seeking entertainers and virgins for his harem, and his entrusting greater authority to eunuchs—which caused problems for his successors. He saw himself as a warrior and, like the Yongle Emperor, personally led military campaigns, but his actions were relatively small (such as suppressing his uncle's rebellion) or insignificant (such as clashes with the Mongols on the northern border). The Xuande Emperor was the last Ming emperor to actively participate in governing the state and remained impartial towards the various groups that made up the ruling elite. He relied on civil officials, but also frequently utilized eunuchs and military commanders. In contrast, later Ming emperors abandoned their role as stabilizing figures and instead indulged in palace pleasures, leaving the reins of government in the hands of officials who were often divided into rival factions or, more commonly, palace eunuchs. As a result, subsequent generations of officials viewed the Xuande era as a golden age of ideal governance, in contrast to the factional conflicts and institutional decay of their own time.
The Xuande era is widely regarded by historians as the high point of the Ming dynasty, characterized by stability and peace. This was a stark contrast to the harsh administrative purges of the Hongwu era and the civil war of the Jianwen era. Capable and often long-serving ministers and officials, under the leadership of the "Three Yangs" (Yang Shiqi, Yang Rong, and Yang Pu), governed the country with a level of continuity and reliability unique to the Ming era, in accordance with the Confucian ideals of wise ministerial rule led by a capable ruler. The government also made efforts to improve the lives of its people, gave up expansion in Đại Việt, and implemented administrative reforms. While the emperor may have been harsh towards officials and lenient towards high-ranking officers, this did not significantly impact the overall character of the government.
The rebellion of the emperor's uncle confirmed to the emperor and officials that the decision to remove members of the imperial family from any influence on the military was the right one. The failure of the war in Jiaozhi and the subsequent
defeat in Tumu were constant arguments used by officials against military adventures, which could potentially return power to the hands of the generals and disrupt the establishment of the Ming dynasty's dominance in government. The Ming dynasty's originally diverse elites, including generals, members of the imperial family, Confucian officials, and eunuchs, saw the first two groups lose their influence on the governance of the country. During the Xuande era, Confucian officials gained supremacy over the other groups and maintained it until the end of the Ming dynasty, marking the end of the early Ming period in the 1430s. Despite the significant increase in population and economy, the Ming military and political institutions remained relatively unchanged until the end of the dynasty.
Family
Consorts and issue
*
Empress Gongrangzhang
Empress Hu (; 20 May 1402 – 5 December 1443), personal name Hu Shanxiang, was a Chinese empress consort of the Ming dynasty, married to the Xuande Emperor. She was posthumously honoured with the title Empress Gongrangzhang.
Early life
Empress ...
, of the Hu clan (; 20 May 1402 – 5 December 1443), personal name Shanxiang ()
** Princess Shunde (; 1420–1443), first daughter
*** Married Shi Jing (; 9 January 1420 – 17 October 1479) in 1437
** Princess Yongqing (; d. 1433), second daughter
*
Empress Xiaogongzhang
Empress Xiaogongzhang (孝恭章皇后; 1399 – 26 September 1462), of the Sun clan, was a Chinese empress consort of the Ming dynasty, married to the fifth Ming emperor, the Xuande Emperor. She was mother of Zhu Qizhen, Emperor Yingzong.
E ...
, of the Sun clan (; 1399 – 26 September 1462)
**
Princess Changde (; 1424–1470), third daughter
*** Married Xue Huan () in 1440
** Zhu Qizhen,
Emperor Yingzong (; 29 November 1427 – 23 February 1464), first son
*
Consort Rongsixian, of the Wu clan (; 1397 – 16 January 1462)
** Zhu Qiyu, the
Jingtai Emperor
The Jingtai Emperor (21 September 1428 – 14 March 1457), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Daizong of Ming and by his posthumous name as the Emperor Jing of Ming, personal name Zhu Qiyu, was the seventh List of emperors of the Ming ...
(; 21 September 1428 – 14 March 1457), second son
* Noble Consort Duanjing, of the He clan (; d. 1435)
* Consort Chunjingxian, of the Zhao clan (; d. 1435)
* Consort Zhenshunhui, of the Wu clan (; d. 1435)
* Consort Zhuangjingshu, of the Jiao clan (; d. 1435)
* Consort Zhuangshunjing, of the Cao clan (; d. 1435)
* Consort Zhenhuishun, of the Xu clan (; d. 1435)
* Consort Gongdingli, of the Yuan clan (; d. 1435)
* Consort Zhenjinggong, of the Zhu clan (; d. 1435)
* Consort Gongshunchong, of the Li clan (; d. 1435)
* Consort Suxicheng, of the He clan (; d. 1435)
*
Concubine Zhen'ai, of the Guo clan (; d. 1435), personal name Ai ()
See also
*
Chinese emperors family tree (late) This is a list of articles containing Chinese emperors family trees:
* Family tree of Chinese monarchs (ancient)
* Family tree of Chinese monarchs (Warring States period)
* Family tree of Chinese monarchs (early)
* Family tree of Chinese monarc ...
Notes
References
Citations
Works cited
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Xuande Emperor
1399 births
1435 deaths
Emperors of the Ming dynasty
15th-century Chinese monarchs
Ming dynasty painters
Chinese painters of animals
Painters from Beijing