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The (), also called in Japan, in Korea, and in Vietnam, is a type of
crown A crown is a traditional form of head adornment, or hat, worn by monarchs as a symbol of their power and dignity. A crown is often, by extension, a symbol of the monarch's government or items endorsed by it. The word itself is used, parti ...
traditionally worn by the
emperors of China Throughout Chinese history, "Emperor" () was the superlative title held by the monarchs of imperial China's various dynasties. In traditional Chinese political theory, the emperor was the " Son of Heaven", an autocrat with the divine manda ...
,
Japan Japan is an island country in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean off the northeast coast of the Asia, Asian mainland, it is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan and extends from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea ...
,
Korea Korea is a peninsular region in East Asia consisting of the Korean Peninsula, Jeju Island, and smaller islands. Since the end of World War II in 1945, it has been politically Division of Korea, divided at or near the 38th parallel north, 3 ...
, and
Vietnam Vietnam, officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam (SRV), is a country at the eastern edge of mainland Southeast Asia, with an area of about and a population of over 100 million, making it the world's List of countries and depende ...
, as well as other kings in
East Asia East Asia is a geocultural region of Asia. It includes China, Japan, Mongolia, North Korea, South Korea, and Taiwan, plus two special administrative regions of China, Hong Kong and Macau. The economies of Economy of China, China, Economy of Ja ...
. Originating in
China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. With population of China, a population exceeding 1.4 billion, it is the list of countries by population (United Nations), second-most populous country after ...
, the was worn by the emperor, his ministers, and aristocrats. The ''mianguan'' was the most expensive Chinese headware, reserved for important sacrificial events. Regulations on its shape and its making were issued under the
Eastern Han dynasty The Han dynasty was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China (202 BC9 AD, 25–220 AD) established by Liu Bang and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–206 BC ...
and applied in the succeeding dynasties only to be ended at the fall of the Ming dynasty in the 16th century AD. In
Japan Japan is an island country in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean off the northeast coast of the Asia, Asian mainland, it is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan and extends from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea ...
, emperors and nobles wore gold, silver, and gilt-bronze crowns, influenced by the Korean peninsula, from the
Kofun period The is an era in the history of Japan from about 300 to 538 AD (the date of the introduction of Buddhism), following the Yayoi period. The Kofun and the subsequent Asuka periods are sometimes collectively called the Yamato period. This period is ...
(mid 3rd century-7th century). In the 8th century, influenced by the Chinese ''mianguan'', the unique ''benkan'' was born, a metal crown with chains and a sun-shaped ornament at the top. It is also worn in
Vietnam Vietnam, officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam (SRV), is a country at the eastern edge of mainland Southeast Asia, with an area of about and a population of over 100 million, making it the world's List of countries and depende ...
, and the monarchs of the
Joseon Joseon ( ; ; also romanized as ''Chosun''), officially Great Joseon (), was a dynastic kingdom of Korea that existed for 505 years. It was founded by Taejo of Joseon in July 1392 and replaced by the Korean Empire in October 1897. The kingdom w ...
dynasty also wore an equivalent crown, the .


(China)

Among all the type of Chinese headwear, the was the most expensive type; it was reserved especially for important sacrificial events. The and the were worn beginning in the
Zhou dynasty The Zhou dynasty ( ) was a royal dynasty of China that existed for 789 years from until 256 BC, the longest span of any dynasty in Chinese history. During the Western Zhou period (771 BC), the royal house, surnamed Ji, had military ...
, based on the ceremonial and
ritual A ritual is a repeated, structured sequence of actions or behaviors that alters the internal or external state of an individual, group, or environment, regardless of conscious understanding, emotional context, or symbolic meaning. Traditionally ...
-culture of Zhou that prescribes which types of clothing and accessories could be worn by the different social ranks and during different occasions.


Zhou dynasty

In the ''
Rites of Zhou The ''Rites of Zhou'' (), originally known as "Officers of Zhou" (), is a Chinese work on bureaucracy and organizational theory. It was renamed by Liu Xin to differentiate it from a chapter in the '' Book of History'' by the same name. To rep ...
'', there is a description of the ceremonial dress and crowns worn by the kings of the Zhou dynasty. According to the description, kings had six types of ceremonial dress (, ) according to their rituals, all of which were worn with a ''mian'' (, ). At that time, it was still called simply ''mian'', not ''mianguan''. In addition, the ''mian'' was also worn by the various lords, such as
dukes Duke is a male title either of a monarch ruling over a duchy, or of a member of Royal family, royalty, or nobility. As rulers, dukes are ranked below emperors, kings, grand princes, grand dukes, and above sovereign princes. As royalty or nobi ...
,
marquises The Marquesas Islands ( ; or ' or ' ; Marquesan: ' (North Marquesan) and ' (South Marquesan), both meaning "the land of men") are a group of volcanic islands in French Polynesia, an overseas collectivity of France in the southern Pacific Oce ...
,
counts Count (feminine: countess) is a historical title of nobility in certain European countries, varying in relative status, generally of middling rank in the hierarchy of nobility. Pine, L. G. ''Titles: How the King Became His Majesty''. New York: ...
,
viscounts A viscount ( , for male) or viscountess (, for female) is a title used in certain European countries for a noble of varying status. The status and any domain held by a viscount is a viscounty. In the case of French viscounts, the title is so ...
, and
barons Barons may refer to: *Baron (plural), a rank of nobility *Barons (surname), a Latvian surname *Barons, Alberta, Canada * ''Barons'' (TV series), a 2022 Australian drama series * ''The Barons'', a 2009 Belgian film Sports * Birmingham Barons, a Min ...
, as well as ''hú'' (, ministerial class), '' qīng'' (, ), and ''daiyus''. The ''
Book of Rites The ''Book of Rites'', also known as the ''Liji'', is a collection of texts describing the social forms, administration, and ceremonial rites of the Zhou dynasty as they were understood in the Warring States and the early Han periods. The '' ...
'' also has the following description of the ''mian'': Here the king's crown is called a ''yùzǎo'' (, ), not a ''mian'' (). The word ''zǎo'' (, ) means silk thread, which is threaded through a jade bead to make a chain. The chains are then attached to the crown, which is why it is called a ''yùzǎo''. At the top of the ''yùzǎo'' is a board called a ''yán'' (, ), from the front and back ends of which hang 12 chains each, or 24 chains in total. However, the color of the jade and the color and length of the silk threads are unknown from the description in the ''Book of Rite''s alone. A commentary on the ''Book of Rite'' is the ''Right Meaning of the Ritual Records'' (, ).
Zheng Xuan Zheng Xuan (127– July 200), courtesy name Kangcheng (), was a Chinese philosopher, politician, and writer who lived towards the end of the Eastern Han dynasty. He was born in Gaomi, Beihai Commandery (modern Weifang, Shandong), and was a ...
's commentary in this book states that the silk threads were of various colors, that the silk threads of the king's ''mian'' were of five colors, and that their length was long enough to reach the king's shoulders. However, the color of the jade is not mentioned. On the other hand, according to the commentary by
Kong Yingda Kong Yingda (; 574 – 648), courtesy names Chongyuan () and Zhongda (), was a Chinese philosopher during the Sui and Tang dynasty. An ardent Confucianist, he is considered one of the most influential Confucian scholars in Chinese history. Hi ...
(574 – 648) in the same book, the beads of the king's ''mian'' are five colors (from top to bottom: vermillion, white, blue, yellow, and black), and the distance between each jade is 1 '' cun'' (about 3 cm). This combination is one set (6 ''cun'', about 18 cm), and the length of the chain is two sets, thus the length of the chain of the king's ''mian'' is about 36 cm. Both Zheng Xuan nor Kong Yingda's commentaries are likely conceptual, based on Confucian principles rather than known excavated or physical examples of ''mianguan'' during the Zhou dynasty.


Qin dynasty

Qin Shi Huang Qin Shi Huang (, ; February 25912 July 210 BC), born Ying Zheng () or Zhao Zheng (), was the founder of the Qin dynasty and the first emperor of China. He is widely regarded as the first ever supreme leader of a unitary state, unitary d ...
abolished the six types of ceremonial dress of the Zhou dynasty and replaced them with an all-black ceremonial dress called the ''junxuan'' (). However, the exact details of the ''junxuan'', including the crown, are unknown.


Han dynasty

In the
Western Han dynasty The Han dynasty was an imperial dynasty of China (202 BC9 AD, 25–220 AD) established by Liu Bang and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) and a warring in ...
, there was a crown called ''chángguān'' () or ''zhāiguān'' (). The origin of the ''chángguān'' is the so-called "Liu's crown" (), which
Liu Bang Emperor Gaozu of Han (2561 June 195 BC), also known by his given name Liu Bang, was the founder and first emperor of the Han dynasty, reigning from 202 to 195 BC. He is considered by traditional Chinese historiography to be one o ...
had made from bamboo bark when he was chief of a post, and later wore even after he reached a high rank. The Qin dynasty ''junxuan'' was continued to be worn by emperors of the Han dynasty, until the ''
mianfu Mianfu () is a kind of Chinese clothing in hanfu; it was worn by emperors, kings, and princes, and in some instances by the nobles in historical China from the Shang to the Ming dynasty. The mianfu is the highest level of formal dress worn by ...
'' was formally restored during the reign of Emperor Ming (reigned 57 - 75) in the
Eastern Han dynasty The Han dynasty was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China (202 BC9 AD, 25–220 AD) established by Liu Bang and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–206 BC ...
. According to the ''
Book of the Later Han The ''Book of the Later Han'', also known as the ''History of the Later Han'' and by its Chinese name ''Hou Hanshu'' (), is one of the Twenty-Four Histories and covers the history of the Han dynasty from 6 to 189 CE, a period known as the Lat ...
,'' the extension (board) at the top of the revived ''mianguan'' was 7 ''cun'' wide and 1.2 ''
chi __NOTOC__ Chi may refer to: __NOTOC__ Greek *Chi (letter) (Χ or χ), the twenty-second letter of the Greek alphabet Chinese * ''Chi'' (length) (尺), a traditional unit of length, about ⅓ meter *Chi (mythology) (螭), a dragon * Chi (surname) ...
'' long, with a rounded front edge and a square back edge, and the surface of the extension was black and the reverse side was red and green. The length of the chain hanging from the extension was 4 ''cun'' in the front and 3 ''cun'' in the back. The color and number of chains were as follows: 12 chains of white jade for the emperor, 7 chains of blue jade for the three dukes and lords, and 5 chains of black jade for high-ranking officials. However, the three dukes and below had only front chains and no back chains. According to the ''Duduan'' () by
Cai Yong Cai Yong (132/133 – ), courtesy name Bojie, was a Chinese astronomer, calligrapher, historian, mathematician, musician, politician, and writer of the Eastern Han dynasty. He was well-versed in calligraphy, music, mathematics and astronomy. On ...
(132 - 192) of the Eastern Han dynasty, the number of white jade per chain on the ''mianguan'' of the reestablished emperors was only one at the bottom end of the chain. Indeed, the ''mianguan'' of the emperors depicted in the ''Thirteen Emperors Scroll'' by
Yan Liben Yan Liben (; c. 600 – 14 November 673), posthumous name Baron Wenzhen of Boling (), was a Chinese architect, painter, and politician during the early Tang dynasty. His most famous work, possibly the only genuine survival, is the ''Thirteen Emp ...
, which depicts emperors from the Eastern Han to the Sui dynasty, have only one white jade at the bottom end of the chain. Also, earplugs, called ''tǒukuàng'' () also hung down from the crown. This is also depicted in the ''Thirteen Emperors Scroll''. In
Gu Kaizhi Gu Kaizhi (; c. 344–406), courtesy name Changkang (), was a Chinese painter and politician during the Eastern Jin dynasty (317–420). He was a celebrated painter of ancient China.Cihai: Page 1846. He was born in Wuxi and first painted at Nan ...
's ''
Admonitions Scroll The Admonitions Scroll is a Chinese narrative painting on silk that is traditionally ascribed to Gu Kaizhi (''ca''. 345 – ''ca''. 406), but which modern scholarship regards as a 5th to 8th century work that may or may not be a copy of an orig ...
'', Emperor Yuan of the Western Han dynasty is depicted, and the crown he wears is thought to be the '' tongtianguan'' (, ). According to the ''Book of Later Han'', the ''tongtianguan'' was a crown usually worn by emperors. Also, according to the book, it is stated that Emperor Ming was the first to wear a ''tongtianguan'', so it is thought that the ''tongtianguan'' actually came into use in the Eastern Han dynasty, though sources such as the
Book of Jin The ''Book of Jin'' is an official Chinese historical text covering the history of the Jin dynasty (266–420), Jin dynasty from 266 to 420. It was compiled in 648 by a number of officials commissioned by the imperial court of the Tang dynasty, ...
claims its origin to be from the Qin dynasty.


Cao Wei dynasty

According to the ''
Book of Jin The ''Book of Jin'' is an official Chinese historical text covering the history of the Jin dynasty (266–420), Jin dynasty from 266 to 420. It was compiled in 648 by a number of officials commissioned by the imperial court of the Tang dynasty, ...
'',
Cao Rui Cao Rui () (204 or 205 – 22 January 239), courtesy name Yuanzhong, was the second emperor of the state of Cao Wei during the Three Kingdoms period. His parentage is in dispute: his mother, Lady Zhen, was Yuan Xi's wife, but she later remarr ...
, the second emperor of the
Cao Wei dynasty Wei () was one of the major dynastic states in China during the Three Kingdoms period. The state was established in 220 by Cao Pi based upon the foundations laid by his father Cao Cao during the end of the Han dynasty. Its capital was initia ...
, was fond of women's ornaments and changed the white jade beads in the chains to coral beads.


Jin dynasty

The dress system of the
Jin dynasty Jin may refer to: States Jìn 晉 * Jin (Chinese state) (晉國), major state of the Zhou dynasty, existing from the 11th century BC to 376 BC * Jin dynasty (266–420) (晉朝), also known as Liang Jin and Sima Jin * Jin (Later Tang precursor) ...
basically followed that of the Eastern Han dynasty, but changes were made to the ''mianguan''. According to the ''Book of Jin'', a ''tongtianguan'' was worn over a black cape, and a ''mianguan'', called a ''píngmiǎn'' (, ), was placed over the ''tongtianguan''. In the Eastern Han dynasty, the crown was an integral part of the cap and the extension (board), but in the Jin dynasty, it is thought that the crown was changed to a detachable type, with the extension of the ''mianguan'' placed on top of the ''tongtianguan'', which was worn daily, at special occasions. The extension was 7 ''cun'' wide and 1.2 ''chi'' long, black on the surface and vermilion-green on the reverse, rounded at the front and angular at the rear. The chain beads initially followed the Cao Wei system and were made of jade and coral in various colors, but Gu He (, 288 - 351) advised the emperor to return to the white jade beads of the Eastern Han dynasty. The number of chains on an emperor's ''mianguan'' was 12. ''Píngmiǎn'' were also used by royalty, dukes, and lords. The number of chains was 8 for royalty and dukes and 7 for lords.


Liang dynasty

In the
Liang dynasty The Liang dynasty (), alternatively known as the Southern Liang () or Xiao Liang () in historiography, was an imperial dynasty of China and the third of the four Southern dynasties during the Northern and Southern dynasties period. It was pre ...
, as in the Jin dynasty, the ''mianguan'' consisted of a black cape, over which was placed the ''tongtianguan'', and over this was placed the ''píngmiǎn''. This was commonly known as the ''píngtiānguān'' (, ). The emperor's ''píngtiānguān'' had 12 chains made of white jade beads, with the chains 4 ''cun'' long in the front and 3 ''cun'' long in the back. On each side of the crown hung an ornament resembling earplugs made of jade. In 508,
Emperor Wu of Liang Emperor Wu of Liang () (464 – 12 June 549), personal name Xiao Yan (蕭衍), courtesy name Shuda (叔達), childhood name Lian'er (練兒), was the founding Emperor of China, emperor of the Chinese Liang dynasty, during the Northern and Souther ...
(reigned 502 - 549) reestablished the ''dàqiúmiǎn'' (, ), the highest of the six crowns mentioned in the ''Rites of Zhou''. Although ''qiú'' () refers to sheep's fur, the ''dàqiúmiǎns ceremonial dress was black silk for the upper garment and red for the lower garment, both without patterns or embroidery. The ''mianguan'' had no chains.


Sui dynasty

Emperor Wen (reigned 581 - 604) of the
Sui dynasty The Sui dynasty ( ) was a short-lived Dynasties of China, Chinese imperial dynasty that ruled from 581 to 618. The re-unification of China proper under the Sui brought the Northern and Southern dynasties era to a close, ending a prolonged peri ...
, in reference to the appearance of the red sparrow, a sign of good omen, when he received a mandate from heaven, changed the color of the imperial robes worn at court to red, while the ''gǔnmiǎn'' (, imperial dress with dragons and ''mianguan'') worn at rituals remained unchanged. The ''mianguan'' was black with 12 chains of white jade beads, chinstrap, ''tǒukuàng'' (an ornament resembling earplugs), and hairpin. The emperor's costume was black for the upper garment and red for the lower garment. In 605,
Emperor Yang Emperor Yang of Sui (隋煬帝, 569 – 11 April 618), personal name Yang Guang (), alternative name Ying (), Xianbei name Amo (), was the second emperor of the Sui dynasty of China. Emperor Yang's original name was Yang Ying, but he was rena ...
(reigned 604 - 618) established the ''dàqiúmiǎn'' (supreme ceremonial dress of the emperor), just as the Liang dynasty had done. The upper extension of the ''mianguan'' was blue on the surface and vermilion on the reverse side, and did not have chains and earplugs attached.


Ming dynasty

The basic shape of the remained the same from ancient times to the
Ming dynasty The Ming dynasty, officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming was the last imperial dynasty of ...
. The crown worn by the Ming dynasty's
Wanli Emperor The Wanli Emperor (4 September 1563 – 18 August 1620), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Shenzong of Ming, personal name Zhu Yijun, art name Yuzhai, was the 14th List of emperors of the Ming dynasty, emperor of the Ming dynasty, reig ...
has been excavated from the Dingling Mausoleum, while the painting "Illustrated Scrolls of the Emperors of the dynasties" by depicted emperors from the
Former Han dynasty The Han dynasty was an imperial dynasty of China (202 BC9 AD, 25–220 AD) established by Liu Bang and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) and a warring int ...
to the
Sui dynasty The Sui dynasty ( ) was a short-lived Dynasties of China, Chinese imperial dynasty that ruled from 581 to 618. The re-unification of China proper under the Sui brought the Northern and Southern dynasties era to a close, ending a prolonged peri ...
, whose was almost the same shape as the crown depicted, with minor differences in decoration. File:Chinese Imperial Mian, Dingling.jpg, excavated from the mausoleum of the
Wanli Emperor The Wanli Emperor (4 September 1563 – 18 August 1620), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Shenzong of Ming, personal name Zhu Yijun, art name Yuzhai, was the 14th List of emperors of the Ming dynasty, emperor of the Ming dynasty, reig ...
during the
Ming dynasty The Ming dynasty, officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming was the last imperial dynasty of ...
File:Wanli-Emperor.jpg, The of the Wanli Emperor. He is wearing the same as the in the left picture.
Many of the non-Han Chinese dynasties that ruled China also adopted the . (Liao, which did not adopt the ritual system of the Han dynasty, and Yuan, which is considered to have a strong Mongolian flavor, also adopted the .) The stopped being used in China since the fall of the
Ming dynasty The Ming dynasty, officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming was the last imperial dynasty of ...
and the establishment of the
Qing dynasty The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing, was a Manchu-led Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China and an early modern empire in East Asia. The last imperial dynasty in Chinese history, the Qing dynasty was preceded by the ...
by the
Manchu The Manchus (; ) are a Tungusic peoples, Tungusic East Asian people, East Asian ethnic group native to Manchuria in Northeast Asia. They are an officially recognized Ethnic minorities in China, ethnic minority in China and the people from wh ...
. Instead, a unique Manchu crown called the 'morning crown' ( in
Manchu The Manchus (; ) are a Tungusic peoples, Tungusic East Asian people, East Asian ethnic group native to Manchuria in Northeast Asia. They are an officially recognized Ethnic minorities in China, ethnic minority in China and the people from wh ...
) was used. The Manchu crown was shaped like an umbrella, and the top of the crown was decorated with a special pearl-encrusted ornament called the morning pearl.


Benkan (Japan)

The is a type of crown traditionally worn by Japanese emperors and
crown princes A crown is a traditional form of head adornment, or hat, worn by monarchs as a symbol of their power and dignity. A crown is often, by extension, a symbol of the monarch's government or items endorsed by it. The word itself is used, parti ...
. It is also called . In ancient
Japan Japan is an island country in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean off the northeast coast of the Asia, Asian mainland, it is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan and extends from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea ...
, emperors and nobles wore metal crowns made of gold, silver, and gilt bronze under the influence of the Korean peninsula. In the 8th century, emperors and crown princes began to wear ''benkan'' with chains attached to the metal crown, influenced by the Chinese . Furthermore, a sun-shaped ornament was added to the top of the ''benkan'', giving birth to a uniquely Japanese crown. Since then, the ''benkan'' was worn along with a ceremonial dress called '' kon'e'' for accession and ''chōga'' (, New Year's greetings) ceremonies, but it was last worn for the accession ceremony of
Emperor Kōmei Osahito (22 July 1831 – 30 January 1867), posthumously honored as Emperor Kōmei, was the 121st emperor of Japan, according to the List of Emperors of Japan, traditional order of succession.Imperial Household Agency (''Kunaichō'')孝明天皇 ...
(1831-1867) in 1847, and has not been worn since. In addition to ''benkan'' for the emperor, there is for the female emperor and for the infant emperor, each of which has a distinctive shape. The ''benkan'', ''hōkan'', and ''nikkeikan'' crowns made in the
Edo period The , also known as the , is the period between 1600 or 1603 and 1868 in the history of Japan, when the country was under the rule of the Tokugawa shogunate and some 300 regional ''daimyo'', or feudal lords. Emerging from the chaos of the Sengok ...
(1603-1867) each have survived, but as , these are not usually shown to the public. However, they are occasionally shown to the public to commemorate accession ceremonies.


(Vietnam)

The Chinese-style was also used in Vietnam, where it was known as the . File:Khai Dinh2.jpg,
Khải Định Khải Định (; chữ Hán: 啓定; born Nguyễn Phúc Bửu Đảo; 8 October 1885 – 6 November 1925) was the 12th emperor of the Nguyễn dynasty in Vietnam, reigning from 1916 to 1925. His name at birth was Prince Nguyễn Phúc Bửu Đ ...
of
Nguyễn dynasty The Nguyễn dynasty (, chữ Nôm: 茹阮, chữ Hán: 朝阮) was the last List of Vietnamese dynasties, Vietnamese dynasty, preceded by the Nguyễn lords and ruling unified Vietnam independently from 1802 until French protectorate in 1883 ...
wearing a garment and File:越南阮朝弘宗宣皇帝阮福晙(启定1916年—1925年)31岁登基时的冕服照片(1916年).jpg,
Khải Định Khải Định (; chữ Hán: 啓定; born Nguyễn Phúc Bửu Đảo; 8 October 1885 – 6 November 1925) was the 12th emperor of the Nguyễn dynasty in Vietnam, reigning from 1916 to 1925. His name at birth was Prince Nguyễn Phúc Bửu Đ ...
of
Nguyễn dynasty The Nguyễn dynasty (, chữ Nôm: 茹阮, chữ Hán: 朝阮) was the last List of Vietnamese dynasties, Vietnamese dynasty, preceded by the Nguyễn lords and ruling unified Vietnam independently from 1802 until French protectorate in 1883 ...
wearing a File:TranhtrieuNguyen1.jpg, Paintings of ''Miện quan'' hats in the Nguyễn dynasty


Construction and design

The is composed of: A long, rectangular wooden board called the board ( in the Han dynasty) was placed on top of the , with fulls hanging from the front and back of the board. In the Han dynasty, the was round in the front but flat in the back; it was about in width and in length. On both sides of the mianguan, there was a hole where an emerald hairpin could pass through so that the crown could be fastened to the hair bun of its wearer. A red band called the was attached to the centre of the and wraps around it. The silk cord was tied on one end of the hairpin and would then be tied on the other side of the hairpin passing under the chin. There was also a () located on both side of the around the ear area; the was a pearl or a piece of jade which symbolized that the wearer of should not believe in any slander. The number of chains depended on the status of the wearer, and the of the emperor had 12 chains at the front and back, for a total of 24 chains. The 12 chains dangles down the shoulders and were made of jade beads of multiple colours which would sway with the wearer's movement. In addition, there was the nine-chained crown, worn by regional lords and the crown prince. The eight-chained crown was worn by other princes and dukes. The (, seven-chained crown) was worn by high-ranking ministers. The five-chained crown (, ) was worn by viscounts and barons. The quantity and quality of the jewellery were an important marker of social ranking. In the Han dynasty, the emperor would use 12 strings of white jade, 7 strings of blue jade were used by dukes and princes, and black jade were used for ministers. File:明代皇帝十二旒冕.svg, Emperor's Twelve-chained crown File:明代皇太子亲王九旒冕.svg, Nine-chained crown worn by crown-princes and kings. File:明代亲王世子八旒冕.svg, Eight-chained crown. File:明代郡王七旒冕.svg, Seven-chained crown.


Cultural significance

The was designed to strengthen the charismatic authority of its wearer which was conferred by the head. This is similar to the Mandate of Heaven concept in which there is a rationalization of divine authority.


Related items

Since China was a crown-wearing culture, there were many crowns for different ranks, positions, and times. * – a crown worn by an empress (e.g. – crowns of Empress Xiao Danxian and Empress Dowager Xiao Jing excavated from the Dingling site, two each)


See also

*
Benkan The is a type of crown traditionally worn by Japanese emperors and crown princes. It is also called . In ancient Japan, emperors and nobles wore metal crowns made of gold, silver, and gilt bronze, influenced by the Korean peninsula. In the 8th ...
* Imperial crown * List of Hanfu headwear


References

Notes Sources


Bibliography

* 『服周之冕』 中華書局、2009年。


External links

{{Crowns Vietnamese clothing Chinese clothing Hats Headgear Crowns (headgear) Pages with unreviewed translations Chinese headgear Korean headgear