Mianfu () is a kind of Chinese clothing in

hanfu ''Hanfu'' (, lit. "Han Chinese, Han clothing"), also known as ''Hanzhuang'' (), are the traditional styles of clothing worn by the Han Chinese since the 2nd millennium BCE. There are several representative styles of ''hanfu'', such as the (an ...

; it was worn by

emperors The word ''emperor'' (from , via ) can mean the male ruler of an empire. ''Empress'', the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife ( empress consort), mother/grandmother (empress dowager/ grand empress dowager), or a woman who rule ...

, kings, and princes, and in some instances by the nobles in historical China from the Shang to the

Ming dynasty The Ming dynasty, officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming was the last imperial dynasty of ...

. The mianfu is the highest level of formal dress worn by Chinese monarchs and the ruling families in special ceremonial events such as coronation, morning audience, ancestral rites, worship, new year's audience and other ceremonial activities. There were various forms of mianfu, and the mianfu also had its own system of attire called the mianfu system which was developed back in the

Western Zhou dynasty The Western Zhou ( zh, c=西周, p=Xīzhōu; 771 BC) was a period of Chinese history corresponding roughly to the first half of the Zhou dynasty. It began when King Wu of Zhou overthrew the Shang dynasty at the Battle of Muye and ended in 7 ...

. The mianfu was used by every dynasty from Zhou dynasty onward until the collapse of the Ming dynasty. The Twelve Ornaments were used on the traditional imperial robes in China, including on the mianfu. These Twelve Ornaments were later adopted in clothing of other ethnic groups; for examples, the Khitan and the Jurchen rulers adopted the Twelve ornaments in 946 AD and in 1140 AD respectively. The Korean kings have also adopted clothing embellished with nine out of the Twelve ornaments since 1065 AD after the Liao emperor had bestowed a nine-symbol robe () to the Korean king, King Munjong, in 1043 AD where it became known as ().

Construction and design

The mianfu is typically a set of clothing, which includes a type of Chinese crown ( guan) called mianguan (冕冠), looked like a board which leans forward and had chains of beads at the front and back. Usually, the ''mianguan'' has 12 chains; however, it could also vary in numbers (i.e. 9, 7, 5, 3) depending on the importance of an event and in rank difference. To fasten the ''mianguan'' to the hair, hairpins are used. The mianfu was also worn together with other accessories, such as gedai (革带) which is a type of leather belt, dadai (大带) which is a large silk belt, peishou (佩綬) which is a type of ribbon ornament, and clogs with wooden soles called xi (舄) The shoes worn by the emperor which goes with the mianfu is made of silk with double-layered wooden soles. The shoes could vary in colour depending on events, and by order of importance, the emperor would wear red, white, or black shoes. All these originated from the primitive clothing worn by the shamans in ancient China. The upper garment of the emperor's mianfu is usually black in colour while the lower garment is crimson red in colour in order to symbolize the order of heaven and earth. The upper and lower garment are tied with a belt. A pure red coloured '' bixi'', an important component for ceremonial clothing, hangs down under the belt. Twelve Ornaments, including the

dragons A dragon is a magical legendary creature that appears in the folklore of multiple cultures worldwide. Beliefs about dragons vary considerably through regions, but dragons in Western cultures since the High Middle Ages have often been depict ...

, are the usual decoration of the ''mianfu''. When decorated with all the Twelve Ornaments, the mianfu can be classified as () while decorated with nine out of the twelve symbols, it is can be classified as () or (). Zhou Wu Tang.jpg,

Emperor Wu of Northern Zhou The word ''emperor'' (from , via ) can mean the male ruler of an empire. ''Empress'', the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife ( empress consort), mother/grandmother ( empress dowager/ grand empress dowager), or a woman who rul ...

wearing ''mianfu'' Han Guangwu Di.jpg,

Emperor Wu of Han Emperor Wu of Han (156 – 29 March 87BC), born Liu Che and courtesy name Tong, was the seventh Emperor of China, emperor of the Han dynasty from 141 to 87 BC. His reign lasted 54 years – a record not broken until the reign of the Kangxi ...

wearing ''mianfu'' File:Mogao Cave 220 Tang Dynasty emperor and officials 莫高窟220窟东壁门北初唐君臣帝王.jpg, Tang dynasty emperor and officials from Mogao murals from AD 642, located in Cave 220,

Dunhuang Dunhuang () is a county-level city in northwestern Gansu Province, Western China. According to the 2010 Chinese census, the city has a population of 186,027, though 2019 estimates put the city's population at about 191,800. Sachu (Dunhuang) was ...

, Gansu. File:Emperor_Cheng_of_Han,_Northern_Wei_painted_screen.jpg, Emperor Cheng of Han as depicted on lacquer screen from

Northern Wei Wei (), known in historiography as the Northern Wei ( zh, c=北魏, p=Běi Wèi), Tuoba Wei ( zh, c=拓跋魏, p=Tuòbá Wèi), Yuan Wei ( zh, c=元魏, p=Yuán Wèi) and Later Wei ( zh, t=後魏, p=Hòu Wèi), was an Dynasties of China, impe ...

. File:Mianguan Yinan.jpg, Tracing of figure wearing ''mianfu'' in Yinan Tomb stone-relief in Shandong Province. File:Imperial_Encyclopaedia_-_Ceremonial_Usages_-_pic316_-_袞冕.svg, () File:Imperial Encyclopaedia - Ceremonial Usages - pic348 - 元衣纁裳.svg, () and () File:Imperial_Encyclopaedia_-_Ceremonial_Usages_-_pic349_-_中單蔽膝.svg, () and () File:Imperial Encyclopaedia - Ceremonial Usages - pic350 - 革帶.svg, () File:Imperial Encyclopaedia - Ceremonial Usages - pic351 - 大帶.svg, () File:Imperial Encyclopaedia - Ceremonial Usages - pic365 - 綬.svg, () File:Imperial Encyclopaedia - Ceremonial Usages - pic352.svg, ()

Designs and social ranks

There are various forms of mianfu which can be classified in five grades and which was worn by the members of the nobility aside from those worn by the Chinese emperor. The difference in forms and appearance was used to distinguish between the ranks of its wearer; these differences were often form in the number of symbols and the tassels which were attached to the headwear worn in the mianfu. Examples of mianfu include the: # () # () # () # () # () # () File:Daqiumian.jpg, () File:Gunmian.jpg, () File:Imperial Encyclopaedia - Ceremonial Usages - pic317 - 鷩冕.svg, () File:Imperial Encyclopaedia - Ceremonial Usages - pic318 - 毳冕.svg, () File:Imperial Encyclopaedia - Ceremonial Usages - pic319 - 絺冕.svg, ()

Mianfu worn by nobility from Sanlitu (三禮圖)

上公衮冕.新定三礼图.20卷.宋聂崇义集注.清康熙12年通志堂刊.1673年.png, ''Gunmian'' for ''gong'' (公) 三公毳冕.新定三礼图.20卷.宋聂崇义集注.清康熙12年通志堂刊.1673年.png, ''Cuimian'' for the Three Excellencies File:侯伯鷩冕子男毳冕.新定三礼图.20卷.宋聂崇义集注.清康熙12年通志堂刊.1673年.png, ''Bimian'' (鷩冕) and ''Cuimian'' (毳冕) ceremonial robes of regional lords (侯伯) and eldest son (of nobility) (子男). 卿大夫玄冕.新定三礼图.20卷.宋聂崇义集注.清康熙12年通志堂刊.1673年.png, ''Xuanmian'' for ''dafu'' (大夫)

History

Mianfu was first developed in the

Shang dynasty The Shang dynasty (), also known as the Yin dynasty (), was a Chinese royal dynasty that ruled in the Yellow River valley during the second millennium BC, traditionally succeeding the Xia dynasty and followed by the Western Zhou d ...

, and later improved and standardized during the

Zhou dynasty The Zhou dynasty ( ) was a royal dynasty of China that existed for 789 years from until 256 BC, the longest span of any dynasty in Chinese history. During the Western Zhou period (771 BC), the royal house, surnamed Ji, had military ...

. The mianfu was also a strict system of attire which was defined based the social rank of its wearer and had to fulfil requirements based on specific events. The mianfu system was developed in the Western Zhou dynasty. In the Zhou dynasty, there were various types of mianfu; including the gunmian, bimian, cuimian, ximian and xuanmian, which are the five grades of the mianfu worn by the members of the nobility apart from the Emperor; the Zhouli stipulated which types of mianfu were allowed to be worn depending on each noble and official ranks of its wearer: Though the use of ''mianfu'' was abolished during the Qin dynasty, in favour of a black called (袀玄) and , which was continued to be used throughout the

Western Han dynasty The Han dynasty was an imperial dynasty of China (202 BC9 AD, 25–220 AD) established by Liu Bang and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) and a warring in ...

, the and were later restored by

Emperor Ming of Han Emperor Ming of Han (15June 28 – 5September 75 AD), born and also known as and as , was the second Emperor of the Han dynasty#Eastern Han, Eastern Han dynasty. He was the fourth son and second crown prince of Emperor Guangwu of Han, Empero ...

in the

Eastern Han dynasty The Han dynasty was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China (202 BC9 AD, 25–220 AD) established by Liu Bang and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–206 BC ...

based on Rites of Zhou and Confucian

Classic of Rites The ''Book of Rites'', also known as the ''Liji'', is a collection of texts describing the social forms, administration, and ceremonial rites of the Zhou dynasty as they were understood in the Warring States and the early Han periods. The '' ...

. In the

Song dynasty The Song dynasty ( ) was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 960 to 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song, who usurped the throne of the Later Zhou dynasty and went on to conquer the rest of the Fiv ...

, the emperor wore mianfu which included: daqiumian and gunmian. The crown prince of the Song dynasty also wore gunmian. The rulers of the Jurchen-led Jin dynasty also created their own carriages and apparel system by adopting the clothing system of the Han people and by imitating the Song dynasty; and the Jin emperors wore gunmian. According to the Yuanshi, Möngke wore the gunmian in 1252. After the

Manchu The Manchus (; ) are a Tungusic peoples, Tungusic East Asian people, East Asian ethnic group native to Manchuria in Northeast Asia. They are an officially recognized Ethnic minorities in China, ethnic minority in China and the people from wh ...

conquerors established the

Qing dynasty The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing, was a Manchu-led Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China and an early modern empire in East Asia. The last imperial dynasty in Chinese history, the Qing dynasty was preceded by the ...

, the new government initiated a policy that forbade Han Chinese to wear

Hanfu ''Hanfu'' (, lit. "Han Chinese, Han clothing"), also known as ''Hanzhuang'' (), are the traditional styles of clothing worn by the Han Chinese since the 2nd millennium BCE. There are several representative styles of ''hanfu'', such as the (an ...

. Qing emperors did not use Mianfu as the emperor's official garb, which eventually resulted in this style of clothing disappearing from use.

Influence and derivatives

Due to the strong cultural influence China exerted on its neighbours, Mianfu was also worn by rulers in other East Asian countries that belonged to the so-called

Sinosphere The Sinosphere, also known as the Chinese cultural sphere, East Asian cultural sphere, or the Sinic world, encompasses multiple countries in East Asia and Southeast Asia that were historically heavily influenced by Chinese culture. The Sinosph ...

, such as

Korea Korea is a peninsular region in East Asia consisting of the Korean Peninsula, Jeju Island, and smaller islands. Since the end of World War II in 1945, it has been politically Division of Korea, divided at or near the 38th parallel north, 3 ...

(in the form of myeonbok),

Japan Japan is an island country in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean off the northeast coast of the Asia, Asian mainland, it is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan and extends from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea ...

(known as Raifuku) and

Vietnam Vietnam, officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam (SRV), is a country at the eastern edge of mainland Southeast Asia, with an area of about and a population of over 100 million, making it the world's List of countries and depende ...

(known as Cổn Miện) during the imperial era.

References