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Metafiction is a form of
fiction Fiction is any creative work, chiefly any narrative work, portraying character (arts), individuals, events, or setting (narrative), places that are imagination, imaginary or in ways that are imaginary. Fictional portrayals are thus inconsistent ...
that emphasizes its own
narrative structure Story structure or narrative structure is the recognizable or comprehensible way in which a narrative's different elements are unified, including in a particularly chosen order and sometimes specifically referring to the ordering of the plot: ...
in a way that inherently reminds the audience that they are reading or viewing a fictional work. Metafiction is self-conscious about language,
literary form A literary genre is a category of literature. Genres may be determined by literary technique, tone, content, or length (especially for fiction). They generally move from more abstract, encompassing classes, which are then further sub-divided in ...
, and
storytelling Storytelling is the social and cultural activity of sharing narrative, stories, sometimes with improvisation, theatre, theatrics or embellishment. Every culture has its own narratives, which are shared as a means of entertainment, education, cul ...
, and works of metafiction directly or indirectly draw attention to their status as artifacts. Metafiction is frequently used as a form of
parody A parody is a creative work designed to imitate, comment on, and/or mock its subject by means of satire, satirical or irony, ironic imitation. Often its subject is an Originality, original work or some aspect of it (theme/content, author, style, e ...
or a tool to undermine literary conventions and explore the relationship between literature and reality, life and art. Although metafiction is most commonly associated with
postmodern literature Postmodern literature is a form of literature that is characterized by the use of metafiction, unreliable narration, self-reflexivity, and intertextuality, and which often thematizes both historical and political issues. This style of experimen ...
that developed in the mid-20th century, its use can be traced back to much earlier works of fiction, such as ''
The Canterbury Tales ''The Canterbury Tales'' () is a collection of 24 stories written in Middle English by Geoffrey Chaucer between 1387 and 1400. The book presents the tales, which are mostly written in verse, as part of a fictional storytelling contest held ...
'' (
Geoffrey Chaucer Geoffrey Chaucer ( ; – 25 October 1400) was an English poet, author, and civil servant best known for ''The Canterbury Tales''. He has been called the "father of English literature", or, alternatively, the "father of English poetry". He w ...
, 1387), ''
Don Quixote , the full title being ''The Ingenious Gentleman Don Quixote of La Mancha'', is a Spanish novel by Miguel de Cervantes. Originally published in two parts in 1605 and 1615, the novel is considered a founding work of Western literature and is of ...
'' Part Two (
Miguel de Cervantes Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra ( ; ; 29 September 1547 (assumed) – 22 April 1616 Old Style and New Style dates, NS) was a Spanish writer widely regarded as the greatest writer in the Spanish language and one of the world's pre-eminent novelist ...
, 1615), ''
Chymical Wedding of Christian Rosenkreutz The ''Chymical Wedding of Christian Rosenkreutz'' () is a German book edited in 1616 in Strasbourg. Its anonymous authorship is attributed to Johann Valentin Andreae. The ''Chymical Wedding'' is often described as the third of the original man ...
'' ( Johann Valentin Andreae, 1617), ''
The Cloud Dream of the Nine ''The Cloud Dream of the Nine'', also translated as ''The Nine Cloud Dream'' (), is a 17th-century Korean novel set in the Chinese Tang dynasty. Although widely attributed to Kim Man-jung, there have been some arguments about whether he was the ...
'' ( Kim Man-jung, 1687), ''
The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman ''The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman'', also known as ''Tristram Shandy'', is a humorous novel by Laurence Sterne. It was published in nine volumes, the first two appearing in 1759, and seven others following over the next sev ...
'' (
Laurence Sterne Laurence Sterne (24 November 1713 – 18 March 1768) was an Anglo-Irish novelist and Anglican cleric. He is best known for his comic novels ''The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman'' (1759–1767) and ''A Sentimental Journey Thro ...
, 1759), ''
Sartor Resartus ''Sartor Resartus: The Life and Opinions of Herr Teufelsdröckh in Three Books'' is a novel by the Scottish people, Scottish essayist, historian and philosopher Thomas Carlyle, first published as a serial in ''Fraser's Magazine'' in November 1833 ...
'' (
Thomas Carlyle Thomas Carlyle (4 December 17955 February 1881) was a Scottish essayist, historian, and philosopher. Known as the "Sage writing, sage of Chelsea, London, Chelsea", his writings strongly influenced the intellectual and artistic culture of the V ...
, 1833–34), and '' Vanity Fair'' (
William Makepeace Thackeray William Makepeace Thackeray ( ; 18 July 1811 – 24 December 1863) was an English novelist and illustrator. He is known for his Satire, satirical works, particularly his 1847–1848 novel ''Vanity Fair (novel), Vanity Fair'', a panoramic portra ...
, 1847). Metafiction became particularly prominent in the 1960s, with works such as ''
Lost in the Funhouse ''Lost in the Funhouse'' (1968) is a short story collection by American author John Barth. The postmodern stories are extremely self-conscious and self-reflexive, and are considered to exemplify metafiction. Though Barth's reputation rests mai ...
'' by
John Barth John Simmons Barth (; May 27, 1930 – April 2, 2024) was an American writer best known for his postmodern and metafictional fiction. His most highly regarded and influential works were published in the 1960s, and include '' The Sot-Weed Facto ...
, ''
Pale Fire ''Pale Fire'' is a 1962 novel by Vladimir Nabokov. The novel is presented as a 999-line poem titled "Pale Fire", written by the fictional poet John Shade, with a foreword, lengthy commentary and index written by Shade's neighbor and academic co ...
'' by
Vladimir Nabokov Vladimir Vladimirovich Nabokov ( ; 2 July 1977), also known by the pen name Vladimir Sirin (), was a Russian and American novelist, poet, translator, and entomologist. Born in Imperial Russia in 1899, Nabokov wrote his first nine novels in Rus ...
, "The Babysitter" and "The Magic Poker" by
Robert Coover Robert Lowell Coover (February 4, 1932 – October 5, 2024) was an American novelist, Short story, short story writer, and T. B. Stowell Professor Emeritus in Literary Arts at Brown University. He is generally considered a writer of fabulation ...
, ''
Slaughterhouse-Five ''Slaughterhouse-Five, or, The Children's Crusade: A Duty-Dance with Death'' is a 1969 semi-autobiographic science fiction-infused anti-war novel by Kurt Vonnegut. It follows the life experiences of Billy Pilgrim, from his early years, to his ...
'' by
Kurt Vonnegut Kurt Vonnegut ( ; November 11, 1922 – April 11, 2007) was an American author known for his Satire, satirical and darkly humorous novels. His published work includes fourteen novels, three short-story collections, five plays, and five nonfict ...
, ''
The French Lieutenant's Woman ''The French Lieutenant's Woman'' is a 1969 Postmodern literature, postmodern historical fiction novel by John Fowles. The plot explores the fraught relationship of gentleman and amateur naturalist Charles Smithson and Sarah Woodruff, the for ...
'' by
John Fowles John Robert Fowles (; 31 March 1926 – 5 November 2005) was an English novelist, critically positioned between modernism and postmodernism. His work was influenced by Jean-Paul Sartre and Albert Camus, among others. After leaving Oxford Uni ...
, ''
The Crying of Lot 49 ''The Crying of Lot 49'' is a novel by the American author Thomas Pynchon. It was published by J. B. Lippincott & Co. on April27, 1966. The shortest of Pynchon's novels, the plot follows Oedipa Maas, a young Californian woman who begins to embr ...
'' by
Thomas Pynchon Thomas Ruggles Pynchon Jr. ( , ; born May 8, 1937) is an American novelist noted for his dense and complex novels. His fiction and non-fiction writings encompass a vast array of subject matter, Literary genre, genres and Theme (narrative), th ...
, and ''Willie Master's Lonesome Wife'' by William H. Gass. Since the 1980s, contemporary Latino literature has an abundance of self-reflexive, metafictional works, including novels and short stories by
Junot Díaz Junot Díaz ( ; born December 31, 1968) is a Dominican American writer, creative writing professor at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and a former fiction editor at '' Boston Review''. Central to Díaz's work is the immigrant experience ...
('' The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao''),
Sandra Cisneros Sandra Cisneros (born December 20, 1954) is an American writer. She is best known for her first novel, ''The House on Mango Street'' (1984), and her subsequent short story collection, ''Woman Hollering Creek and Other Stories'' (1991). Her wo ...
('' Caramelo''), Salvador Plascencia (''
The People of Paper ''The'' is a grammatical article in English, denoting nouns that are already or about to be mentioned, under discussion, implied or otherwise presumed familiar to listeners, readers, or speakers. It is the definite article in English. ''The ...
''),
Carmen Maria Machado Carmen Maria Machado (born July 3, 1986) is an American short story author, essayist, and critic best known for ''Her Body and Other Parties'', a 2017 short story collection, and her memoir '' In the Dream House'', which was published in 2019 and ...
(''
Her Body and Other Parties Her is the objective and possessive form of the English-language feminine pronoun she. Her, HER or H.E.R. may also refer to: Arts, entertainment and media Music Performers * H.E.R. (born 1997), American singer * HIM (Finnish band), once kno ...
''), Rita Indiana (''Tentacle''), and
Valeria Luiselli Valeria Luiselli (born August 16, 1983) is a Mexican-American author. She is the author of the book of essays ''Sidewalks'' and the novel '' Faces in the Crowd'', which won the ''Los Angeles Times'' Art Seidenbaum Award for First Fiction. Luisel ...
('' Lost Children Archive''). Also in Latin America, but much earlier, Ecuadorian writer
Pablo Palacio Pablo Palacio may refer to: * Pablo Palacio (footballer), Argentine professional footballer * Pablo Palacio (writer), Ecuadorian writer See also

* Pablo Palacios, Ecuadorian footballer {{Human name disambiguation, Palacio, Pablo ...
published his experimental novella ''
Débora ''Débora'' is an experimental novella by Ecuadorian writer Pablo Palacio, published in Quito in October 1927. In 2007, the novella was included in a compilation of the author's complete works by publishing house Libresa. The plot of the book fol ...
'' in October 1927. Some of the techniques he employed in the book include
stream of consciousness In literary criticism, stream of consciousness is a narrative mode or method that attempts "to depict the multitudinous thoughts and feelings which pass through the mind" of a narrator. It is usually in the form of an interior monologue which ...
and metafiction.


History of the term

The term 'metafiction' was coined in 1970 by William H. Gass in his book ''Fiction and the Figures of Life''. Gass describes the increasing use of metafiction at the time as a result of authors developing a better understanding of the medium. This new understanding of the medium led to a major change in the approach toward fiction. Theoretical issues became more prominent aspects, resulting in increased self-reflexivity and formal uncertainty.
Robert Scholes Robert E. Scholes (1929 – December 9, 2016) was an American literary critic and theorist. He is known for his ideas on fabulation and metafiction. Education and career Robert Scholes was born in Brooklyn, New York in 1929. After taking h ...
expands upon Gass's theory and identifies four forms of criticism on fiction, which he refers to as formal, behavioural, structural, and philosophical criticism. Metafiction assimilates these perspectives into the fictional process, putting emphasis on one or more of these aspects. These developments were part of a larger movement (arguably a meta referential turn) which, approximately from the 1960s onwards, was the consequence of an increasing social and cultural self-consciousness, stemming from, as Patricia Waugh puts it, "a more general cultural interest in the problem of how human beings reflect, construct and mediate their experience in the world." Due to this development, an increasing number of novelists rejected the notion of rendering the world through fiction. The new principle became to create through the medium of language a world that does not reflect the real world. Language was considered an "independent, self-contained system which generates its own 'meanings. and a means of mediating knowledge of the world. Thus, literary fiction, which constructs worlds through language, became a model for the construction of 'reality' rather than a reflection of it. Reality itself became regarded as a construct instead of objective truth. Through its formal self-exploration, metafiction thus became the device that explores the question of how human beings construct their experience of the world. Robert Scholes identifies the time around 1970 as the peak of experimental fiction (of which metafiction is an instrumental part) and names a lack of commercial and critical success as reasons for its subsequent decline. The development toward metafictional writing in postmodernism generated mixed responses. Some critics argued that it signified the decadence of the novel and an exhaustion of the artistic capabilities of the medium, with some going as far as to call it the '
death of the novel The ''death of the novel'' is the common name for the theoretical discussion of the declining importance of the novel as literary form. Many 20th century authors entered into the debate, often sharing their ideas in their own fiction and non-fiction ...
'. Others see the self-consciousness of fictional writing as a way to gain a deeper understanding of the medium and a path that leads to innovation that resulted in the emergence of new forms of literature, such as the historiographic novel by
Linda Hutcheon Linda Hutcheon, FRSC, OC (born August 24, 1947) is a Canadian academic working in the fields of literary theory and criticism, opera, and Canadian studies. She is a University Professor Emeritus in the Department of English and of the Centre f ...
. Video games also started to draw on concepts of metafiction, particularly with the rise of independent video games in the 2010s. Games like '' The Magic Circle'', '' The Beginner's Guide'', and ''
Pony Island ''Pony Island'' is a video game developed and published by Canadian indie developer Daniel Mullins. As a metafictional game, the game has the player interact with what appears to be an old arcade cabinet game called "''Pony Island''". The player ...
'' use various techniques as to have the player question the bounds between the fiction of the video game and the reality of them playing the game.


Forms

According to Werner Wolf, metafiction can be differentiated into four pairs of forms that can be combined with each other.


Explicit and implicit

Explicit metafiction is identifiable through its use of clear metafictional elements on the surface of a text. It comments on its own artificiality and is quotable. Explicit metafiction is described as a mode of telling. An example would be a narrator explaining the process of creating the story they are telling. Rather than commenting on the text, implicit metafiction foregrounds the medium or its status as an artifact through various, for example disruptive, techniques such as
metalepsis Metalepsis (from ) is a figure of speech in which a word or a phrase from figurative speech is used in a new context. Quintilian described metalepsis as an "intermediate step" to the original phrase, and its meaning depends upon its connection t ...
. It relies more than other forms of metafiction on the reader's ability to recognize these devices to evoke a metafictional reading. Implicit metafiction is described as a mode of showing.


Direct and indirect

Direct metafiction establishes a reference within the text one is just reading. In contrast to this, indirect metafiction consists in metareferences external to this text, such as reflections on other specific literary works or genres (as in parodies) and general discussions of an aesthetic issue. Since there is always a relationship between the text in which indirect metafiction occurs and the referenced external texts or issues, indirect metafiction always impacts the text one is reading, albeit in an indirect way.


Critical and non-critical

Critical metafiction aims to find the artificiality or fictionality of a text in some critical way, which is frequently done in
postmodernist Postmodernism encompasses a variety of artistic, Culture, cultural, and philosophical movements that claim to mark a break from modernism. They have in common the conviction that it is no longer possible to rely upon previous ways of depicting ...
fiction. Non-critical metafiction does not criticize or undermine the artificiality or fictionality of a text and can, for example, be used to "suggest that the story one is reading is authentic".Wolf, Werner (2009). "Metareference across Media: The Concept, its Transmedial Potentials and Problems, Main Forms and Functions". ''Metareference across Media: Theory and Case Studies''. Studies in Intermediality 4, eds. Werner Wolf, Katharina Bantleon, and Jeff Thoss. Amsterdam: Rodopi. p. 43.


Media-centred and truth- or fiction-centred

While all metafiction somehow deals with the medial quality of fiction or narrative and is thus generally media-centred, in some cases there is an additional focus on the truthfulness or inventiveness (fictionality) of a text, which merits mention as a specific form. The suggestion of a story being authentic (a device frequently used in realistic fiction) would be an example of (non-critical) truth-centred metafiction.


See also

*
Fourth wall The fourth wall is a performance dramatic convention, convention in which an invisible, imaginary wall separates actors from the audience. While the audience can see through this "wall", the convention assumes the actors act as if they cannot. ...
*
Found manuscript A found manuscript (also, discovered manuscript, imaginary manuscript, pseudobiblia) refers to a literary trope in which a work of literature makes a reference to another work, claimed to exist but in fact being fictitious, and which usually is an ...
* List of metafictional works *
Postmodernism Postmodernism encompasses a variety of artistic, Culture, cultural, and philosophical movements that claim to mark a break from modernism. They have in common the conviction that it is no longer possible to rely upon previous ways of depicting ...


References


Further reading

* * Currie, Mark (ed.). ''Metafiction'', Longman, 1995. *Dean, Andrew. ''Metafiction and the Postwar Novel: Foes, Ghosts, and Faces in the Water'', Oxford University Press, 2021. *Gass, William H., ''Fiction and the Figures of Life'', Alfred A. Knopf, 1970 * Heginbotham, Thomas "The Art of Artifice: Barth, Barthelme and the metafictional tradition" (2009
PDF
* Hutcheon, Linda, ''Narcissistic Narrative. The Metafictional Paradox'', Routledge 1984, {{ISBN, 0-415-06567-4. *Hutcheon, Linda. ''A Poetics of Postmodernism: History, Theory, Fiction'', Routledge, 1988, ISBN 0-415-00705-4. * Levinson, Julie, "Adaptation, Metafiction, Self-Creation," ''Genre: Forms of Discourse and Culture''. Spring 2007, vol. 40: 1. *Scholes, Robert, ''Fabulation and Metafiction,'' University of Illinois Press 1979. * The Metafiction Database
Metafiction
*Waugh, Patricia, ''Metafiction – The Theory and Practice of Self-Conscious Fiction,'' Routledge 1984. *Werner Wolf, ed., in collaboration with Katharina Bantleon and Jeff Thoss. ''The Metareferential Turn in Contemporary Arts and Media: Forms, Functions, Attempts at Explanation. Studies in Intermediality 5,'' Rodopi 2011. *Werner Wolf, ed., in collaboration with Katharina Bantleon, and Jeff Thoss. ''Metareference across Media: Theory and Case Studies. Studies in Intermediality 4,'' Rodopi 2009. Concepts in aesthetics Concepts in epistemology Literary concepts Science fiction themes Literature about literature Metafictional techniques Narratology Philosophical theories Parodies