''Mediorhynchus'' is a genus of small parasitic spiny-headed (or thorny-headed) worms. Phylogenetic analysis has been conducted on two known species of ''Mediorhynchus'' and confirmed the placement along with the related genus Gigantorhynchus in the family Gigantorhynchida. The distinguishing features of this order among

archiacanthocephala Archiacanthocephala is a class within the phylum of Acanthocephala. They are parasitic worms that attach themselves to the intestinal wall of terrestrial vertebrates, including humans. They are characterised by the body wall and the lemnisci (whi ...

ns is a divided proboscis (specifically, the presence of a "teloboscis" which is the posterior third of a proboscis). This genus contains fifty-eight species that are distributed globally. These worms exclusively parasitize birds by attaching themselves around the

cloaca A cloaca ( ), : cloacae ( or ), or vent, is the rear orifice that serves as the only opening for the digestive (rectum), reproductive, and urinary tracts (if present) of many vertebrate animals. All amphibians, reptiles, birds, cartilagin ...

using their hook-covered

proboscis A proboscis () is an elongated appendage from the head of an animal, either a vertebrate or an invertebrate. In invertebrates, the term usually refers to tubular arthropod mouthparts, mouthparts used for feeding and sucking. In vertebrates, a pr ...

. The bird

hosts A host is a person responsible for guests at an event or for providing hospitality during it. Host may also refer to: Places * Host, Pennsylvania, a village in Berks County * Host Island, in the Wilhelm Archipelago, Antarctica People * ...

are of different orders.

Taxonomy

''Mediorhynchus'' is monophyletic based on phylogenetic analysis.

Description

Species can be identified primarily morphologically by the arrangement of hooks of the

. The presence of a divided proboscis (specifically, the presence of a "teloboscis" which is the posterior third of a proboscis) is an

autapomorphy In phylogenetics, an autapomorphy is a distinctive feature, known as a Synapomorphy, derived trait, that is unique to a given taxon. That is, it is found only in one taxon, but not found in any others or Outgroup (cladistics), outgroup taxa, not ...

of ''Mediorhynchus''. Males in some species possess eight cement glands which are used to temporarily close the posterior end of the female after copulation.

Species

There are 59 species in the genus ''Mediorhynchus''. *''Mediorhynchus africanus'' Amin, Evans, Heckmann and El-Naggar, 2013 ''M. africanus'' has been found parasitizing the

helmeted guinea fowl The helmeted guinea fowl (''Numida meleagris'') is the best known of the guinea fowl bird family, Numididae, and the only member of the genus ''Numida''. It is native to Africa, mainly south of the Sahara, and has been widely introduced, as ...

(''Numida meleagris'') in

Kruger National Park Kruger National Park () is a national park in South Africa covering an area of in the provinces of Limpopo and Mpumalanga in the country's northeast. It extends from north to south and from east to west. The administrative headquarters are i ...

South Africa South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa (RSA), is the Southern Africa, southernmost country in Africa. Its Provinces of South Africa, nine provinces are bounded to the south by of coastline that stretches along the Atlantic O ...

Morocco Morocco, officially the Kingdom of Morocco, is a country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It has coastlines on the Mediterranean Sea to the north and the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and has land borders with Algeria to Algeria–Morocc ...

Nigeria Nigeria, officially the Federal Republic of Nigeria, is a country in West Africa. It is situated between the Sahel to the north and the Gulf of Guinea in the Atlantic Ocean to the south. It covers an area of . With Demographics of Nigeria, ...

(reported as ''Numida ptilorhyncha'') and

Burkina Faso Burkina Faso is a landlocked country in West Africa, bordered by Mali to the northwest, Niger to the northeast, Benin to the southeast, Togo and Ghana to the south, and Ivory Coast to the southwest. It covers an area of 274,223 km2 (105,87 ...

, and the Yellow-necked spurfowl (''Pternistis leucoscepus'') in

Kenya Kenya, officially the Republic of Kenya, is a country located in East Africa. With an estimated population of more than 52.4 million as of mid-2024, Kenya is the 27th-most-populous country in the world and the 7th most populous in Africa. ...

. One mitochondrial and one nuclear gene sequence confirmed that ''M. africanus'' and ''M. gallinarum'' are allopatric

sister species In phylogenetics, a sister group or sister taxon, also called an adelphotaxon, comprises the closest relative(s) of another given unit in an evolutionary tree. Definition The expression is most easily illustrated by a cladogram: Taxon A and ...

with 9.7% genetic sequence divergence. It is synonymous with ''Empodius segmentatus'' (de Marval, 1902) Southwell et MacFie, 1925 and ''Mediorhynchus selengensis'' Harris 1973. The species name ''africanus'' is named for the worm's distribution across sub-Saharan Africa. The trunk is pseudosegmented, flattened laterally, has many prevalent sensory pits, and measures 3.0 to 74.0 mm long by 0.5 to 2.80 mm wide in the male and measures between 4.00 and 110.00 mm long by 0.60 and 4.00 mm wide in the much larger female. There are up to 100 annuli (structures that permits shortening and lengthening of the body by telescoping) in females but fewer in the shorter males. The proboscis is divided by a prominent ridge into two parts: anterior and posterior. The anterior proboscis is pear or apple-shaped with a truncated bare apical end measuring 250 to 339 long by 278 to 478 wide in the male and 300 to 438 long by 330 to 510 wide in the female. The anterior proboscis has two prominent apical pores and 18 to 22 longitudinal rows of 4 to 6 hooks each. The hooks posteriorly directed and measure between 35 and 76 long with the smallest found anteriorly and the longest in the middle. The posterior proboscis is conically shaped and measures 291 to 332 long by 591 to 689 wide at junction with anterior trunk in the male, and 323 to 365 long by 99 to 745 wide at junction with anterior trunk in the female. Except for the posterior most end, the posterior proboscis is covered in very thin spines that are curved posteriorly or undulating with a total of 26 to 40 longitudinal rows of 2 to 6 spines each measuring 14 to 43 long with the longest spines found anteriorly. The Proboscis receptacle is single-walled with anterior portion encased in jacket of adjacent retractor fibers and measures 0.64 to 1.23 mm long by 0.11 to 0.44 mm wide in the male and 0.64 to 1.80 mm long by 0.11 to 0.55 mm wide in the female. The proboscis retractor muscles are prominent and attached to the proboscis receptacle near its posterior end dorsally. The lemnisci long, digitiform, unequal, and unattached. The shorter lemniscus measure between 1.60 and 3.38 mm long by 0.21 and 0.31 mm wide, with 5 or 6 giant nuclei in the male and measure 1.60 to 5.50 mm long by 0.19 to 0.33 mm wide, with 5 or 6 giant nuclei in the female. Longer lemniscus measures 2.15 to 3.47 mm long by 0.21 to 0.33 mm wide with 6, occasionally 7, giant nuclei in the male and measures 2.12 to 7.31 mm long by 0.19 to 0.62 mm wide with 6 giant nuclei in the female. The male reproductive system is located in the posterior third of trunk and consists of two oblong testes measuring Anterior testis measure 0.37 to 4.10 mm long by 0.30 to 1.10 mm wide and the posterior testis measure 0.32 to 3.15 mm wide. There are eight clustered cement glands larger anteriorly, each with one large central giant nucleus and with independent cement ducts emptying at posterior end of Saefftigen’s pouch, along with prominent common sperm duct. The male

gonopore A gonopore, sometimes called a gonadopore, is a genital pore in many invertebrates. Hexapods, including insects, have a single common gonopore, except mayflies, which have a pair of gonopores. More specifically, in the unmodified female, it is ...

is terminal. The female reproductive system is short and located in the broad and flat posterior end of trunk. The uterine bell contains many large nucleated cells with its dorsal and ventral anterior ends connected to body wall with filaments. The gonopore is sub-ventral occasionally covered by a looping posterior trunk expansion. The eggs are ovoid being 65 to 86 long by 39 to 52 wide. *''Mediorhynchus cambellensis'' Soota, Srivastava, Glosh, 1969Studies on the helminth fauna of the Great Nicobar Island
/ref> ''M. cambellensis'' has been found infesting the intestine of an oriole and flycatcher on

Great Nicobar Island Great Nicobar is the southernmost and largest of the Nicobar Islands of India, north of Sumatra. It is part of India, in the Nicobar district within the union territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. History The Nicobar Island has been ...

. This worm closely resembles ''M. armenicum'' but differs from it in number of proboscis hooks and extent of lemnisci. The male is 9.13 mm long and 1.2 mm wide whereas the female is larger measuring 13 to 16 mm long and 2 mm wide. The proboscis is short and club shaped and 0.83 mm long in the male and 1.0 mm long in the female. The distal portion of the proboscis is truncated, the proximal portion is conical, and the proboscis receptacle 0.66 mm long. The proboscis hooks are anterior and in seven spiral rows each of 7–9 large hooks, posterior hooks are very numerous and small. The lemnisci are almost equal, measuring 3.15 by 0.25 mm. The testes are almost equal and measure 1.2 by 0.44 mm and the eggs measure 0.055 by 0.033 mm. There are four pairs of cement glands that are difficult to distinguish. The species name, ''cambellensis'' was named after the location the hosts were caught, Campbell Bay. *''Mediorhynchus centurorum'' Nickol, 1969 ''M. centurorum'' was found in the egg and larval forms in Pennsylvania wood cockroach (''Parcoblatta pensylvanica''). In the laboratory setting, these worms were found to infect red-bellied woodpeckers (''Melanerpes carolinus''), red-headed woodpeckers (''Melanerpes erythrocephalus''),

Northern flicker The northern flicker or common flicker (''Colaptes auratus'') is a medium-sized bird of the woodpecker family. It is native to most of North America, parts of Central America, Cuba, and the Cayman Islands, and is one of the few woodpecker specie ...

, (''Colaptes auratus''); and a hairy woodpecker, (''Dendrocopos villosus'') with a mean prepatent period of 35 days. Cystacanths fed to

starlings Starlings are small to medium-sized passerine (perching) birds known for the often dark, glossy iridescent sheen of their plumage; their complex vocalizations including mimicking; and their distinctive, often elaborate swarming behavior, known ...

(''Sturnus vaulgaris''), and red-winged blackbirds, Agelaius phoeniceus, did not produce infections. The eggs have 4 membranes, are 55 um long and have an elongation ratio of 1.53.Pfenning, A. C. (2017). Egg morphology, dispersal, and transmission in acanthocephalan parasites: integrating phylogenetic and ecological approaches.Url=https://via.library.depaul.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1273&context=csh_etd *''Mediorhynchus channapettae'' George and Nadakal, 1984 ''M. channapettae'' has been found birds of

Kerala Kerala ( , ) is a States and union territories of India, state on the Malabar Coast of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, following the passage of the States Reorganisation Act, by combining Malayalam-speaking regions of the erstwhile ...

India India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, seventh-largest country by area; the List of countries by population (United Nations), most populous country since ...

. *''Mediorhynchus cisticolae'' Smales, 2011 ''M. cisticolae'' has been found infesting the Red-faced cisticola (''Cisticola erythrops'') which is the type host, in the

Cote D'Ivoire Ivory Coast, also known as Côte d'Ivoire and officially the Republic of Côte d'Ivoire, is a country on the southern coast of West Africa. Its capital city of Yamoussoukro is located in the centre of the country, while its largest city and ...

. The species name ''cisticolae'' is named after the host genus ''

Cisticola __NOTOC__ Cisticolas (pronounced ''sis-TIC-olas'') are a genus of very small insectivorous birds formerly classified in the Old World warbler family Sylviidae, but now usually considered to be in the separate family Cisticolidae, along with other ...

''. *''Mediorhynchus colluricinclae'' Smales, 2002 *''M. colluricinclae'' has been found parasitizing pomatostomatids in

South Australian South Australia (commonly abbreviated as SA) is a state in the southern central part of Australia. With a total land area of , it is the fourth-largest of Australia's states and territories by area, which includes some of the most arid parts ...

. The eggs are 51.5 um long and have an elongation ratio of 1.34. *''Mediorhynchus conirostris'' Ward, 1966 ''M. conirostris'' parasitizes rodents in

Egypt Egypt ( , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a country spanning the Northeast Africa, northeast corner of Africa and Western Asia, southwest corner of Asia via the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to northe ...

and has a proboscis which contains 16 to 20 longitudinal rows of four to five hooks. *''Mediorhynchus corcoracis'' Johnston and Edmonds, 1950Johnston & Edmonds, 1950 : ''Australian Acanthocephala n° 8.'' Transactions of the Royal Society of South Australia, vol.74, p.1–5 url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/128927#page/5/mode/1up. ''M. corcoracis'' was found parasitising the

white-winged chough The white-winged chough (''Corcorax melanorhamphos'') is one of only two surviving species of the Australian mud-nest builders family, Corcoracidae, and is the Monotypic taxon, only member of the genus ''Corcorax''. It is native to southern and e ...

(''Corcorax melanorhamphos'') in

New South Wales New South Wales (commonly abbreviated as NSW) is a States and territories of Australia, state on the Eastern states of Australia, east coast of :Australia. It borders Queensland to the north, Victoria (state), Victoria to the south, and South ...

Queensland Queensland ( , commonly abbreviated as Qld) is a States and territories of Australia, state in northeastern Australia, and is the second-largest and third-most populous state in Australia. It is bordered by the Northern Territory, South Austr ...

, Victoria, and

South Australia South Australia (commonly abbreviated as SA) is a States and territories of Australia, state in the southern central part of Australia. With a total land area of , it is the fourth-largest of Australia's states and territories by area, which in ...

Australia Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising mainland Australia, the mainland of the Australia (continent), Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and list of islands of Australia, numerous smaller isl ...

. It is named after the genus name of the host species Corcorax. It is also found in several species of crow including the little crow '' Corvus bennetti'' from , the Australian raven '' Corvus coronoides'', and the little raven '' Corvus mellori'' all from South Australia. It has also been found in the Australian

Magpie-lark The magpie-lark (''Grallina cyanoleuca''), also known as wee magpie, peewee, peewit, mudlark or Murray magpie, is a passerine bird native to Australia, Timor and southern New Guinea. The male and female both have black and white plumage, though ...

(''Grallina cyanoleuca''). *''Mediorhynchus edmondsi'' Schmidt and Kuntz, 1977 *''Mediorhynchus emberizae'' (Rudolphi, 1819) ''M. emberizae'' is found infesting the intestines of the red-cowled cardinal (''Paroaria dominicana'') in the State of Bahia, Brazil. *''Mediorhynchus empodius'' (Skrjabin, 1913) *''Mediorhynchus fatimaae'' Khan, Bilqees and Muti-ur-Rehman, 2004 ''M. fatimaae'' has been found parasitizing the

White-eyed buzzard The white-eyed buzzard (''Butastur teesa'') is a medium-sized hawk, distinct from the true buzzards in the genus '' Buteo'', found in South Asia. Adults have a rufous tail, a distinctive white iris, and a white throat bearing a dark mesial stripe ...

(''Burastur teesa'') in

Karachi Karachi is the capital city of the Administrative units of Pakistan, province of Sindh, Pakistan. It is the List of cities in Pakistan by population, largest city in Pakistan and 12th List of largest cities, largest in the world, with a popul ...

Pakistan Pakistan, officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by population, fifth-most populous country, with a population of over 241.5 million, having the Islam by country# ...

. It is distinguished mainly by a unique proboscis armature of 10–12 longitudinal rows having 7–8 hooks and 10 longitudinal rows having 7–8 spines and eggs measuring 0.041–0.045 mm by 0.015–0.018 mm. *''Mediorhynchus gallinarum'' (Bhalerao, 1937) ''M. gallinarum'' was found infecting chickens (''Gallus gallus'') in

, other Asian countries, and

Africa Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most populous continent after Asia. At about 30.3 million km2 (11.7 million square miles) including adjacent islands, it covers 20% of Earth's land area and 6% of its total surfac ...

. ''M. gallinarum'' is similar to ''M. africanus'' however specimens from

Indonesia Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania, between the Indian Ocean, Indian and Pacific Ocean, Pacific oceans. Comprising over List of islands of Indonesia, 17,000 islands, including Sumatra, ...

and elsewhere are cylindrical and non-segmented, the proboscis has 18 to 22 longitudinal rows of four to five hooks and lacks prominent apical pores, sensory pits are rare on the trunk, the posterior end of the female is pointed with a terminal gonopore, and the eggs are smaller. *''Mediorhynchus gibsoni'' Bilqees, Khan, Khatoon and Khatoon, 2007Bilqees, F. M., Khan, A., Khatoon, N., & Khatoon, S. (2007). Acanthocephala from eagle of Karachi with descriptions of two new species. Proceedings of Parasitology (Pakistan). ''M. gibsoni'' was found infesting the

(''Butastur teesa'') in

Sindh Sindh ( ; ; , ; abbr. SD, historically romanized as Sind (caliphal province), Sind or Scinde) is a Administrative units of Pakistan, province of Pakistan. Located in the Geography of Pakistan, southeastern region of the country, Sindh is t ...

. The worm has a long pseudosegmented body with a short neck. The proboscis is long with a sac-like receptacle and possesses 25 circular longitudinal rows of between 8 and 12 hooks at the anterior region, and 10 rows of 8 to 16 spines at the posterior region. The two testes are oval and there are eight cement glands. *''Mediorhynchus giganteus'' Meyer, 1931 ''M. giganteus'' has been found parasitizing the

domestic turkey The domestic turkey (''Meleagris gallopavo domesticus'') is a large fowl, one of the two species in the genus ''Meleagris'' and the same species as the wild turkey. Although turkey domestication was thought to have occurred in central Mesoamerica ...

(''Meleagris gallopavo'') in

East Africa East Africa, also known as Eastern Africa or the East of Africa, is a region at the eastern edge of the Africa, African continent, distinguished by its unique geographical, historical, and cultural landscape. Defined in varying scopes, the regi ...

. The proboscis has about 14 longitudinal rows of five hooks with a maximum body length of 11 cm found in a female. *''Mediorhynchus grandis'' Van Cleave, 1916 ''M. grandis'' has been found in the small intestine of the

Common grackle The common grackle (''Quiscalus quiscula'') is a species of large icterid bird found in large numbers through much of North America. First described in 1758 by Carl Linnaeus, the common grackle has three subspecies. Adult common grackles have a ...

(''Quiscalus quiscula'') in

Maryland Maryland ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the Mid-Atlantic (United States), Mid-Atlantic region of the United States. It borders the states of Virginia to its south, West Virginia to its west, Pennsylvania to its north, and Delaware to its east ...

New Jersey New Jersey is a U.S. state, state located in both the Mid-Atlantic States, Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern United States, Northeastern regions of the United States. Located at the geographic hub of the urban area, heavily urbanized Northeas ...

Kansas Kansas ( ) is a landlocked U.S. state, state in the Midwestern United States, Midwestern region of the United States. It borders Nebraska to the north; Missouri to the east; Oklahoma to the south; and Colorado to the west. Kansas is named a ...

Illinois Illinois ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the Midwestern United States, Midwestern United States. It borders on Lake Michigan to its northeast, the Mississippi River to its west, and the Wabash River, Wabash and Ohio River, Ohio rivers to its ...

Kentucky Kentucky (, ), officially the Commonwealth of Kentucky, is a landlocked U.S. state, state in the Southeastern United States, Southeastern region of the United States. It borders Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio to the north, West Virginia to the ...

, the

American crow The American crow (''Corvus brachyrhynchos'') is a large passerine bird species of the family (biology), family Corvidae. It is a common bird found throughout much of North America. American crows are the New World counterpart to the carrion cro ...

(''Corvus brachyrhynchos'') in Maryland and

Ohio Ohio ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the Midwestern United States, Midwestern region of the United States. It borders Lake Erie to the north, Pennsylvania to the east, West Virginia to the southeast, Kentucky to the southwest, Indiana to the ...

Eastern meadowlark The eastern meadowlark (''Sturnella magna'') is a medium-sized icterid bird, very similar in appearance to its sister species, the western meadowlark. It occurs from eastern North America to northern South America, where it is also most widespr ...

(''Sturnella magna'') in

North Carolina North Carolina ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the Southeastern United States, Southeastern region of the United States. It is bordered by Virginia to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the east, South Carolina to the south, Georgia (U.S. stat ...

, Ohio, Illinois,

Oklahoma Oklahoma ( ; Choctaw language, Choctaw: , ) is a landlocked U.S. state, state in the South Central United States, South Central region of the United States. It borders Texas to the south and west, Kansas to the north, Missouri to the northea ...

, and

Texas Texas ( , ; or ) is the most populous U.S. state, state in the South Central United States, South Central region of the United States. It borders Louisiana to the east, Arkansas to the northeast, Oklahoma to the north, New Mexico to the we ...

Red-winged blackbird The red-winged blackbird (''Agelaius phoeniceus'') is a passerine bird of the family Icteridae found in most of North America and much of Central America. It breeds from Alaska and Newfoundland south to Florida, the Gulf of Mexico, Mexico, and ...

(''Agelaius phoeniceus)'') in Ohio and Texas, Rusty blackbird (''Euphagus carolinus'') in Illinois,

Brown-headed cowbird The brown-headed cowbird (''Molothrus ater'') is a small, obligate brood parasitic icterid native to temperate and subtropical North America. It is a permanent resident in the southern parts of its range; northern birds migrate to the souther ...

(''Molothrus ater'') in Texas, the Saltmarsh sparrow (''Ammospiza caudacutus'') or a Nelson's sparrow (''Ammospiza nelsoni'') in Texas and the

American robin The American robin (''Turdus migratorius'') is a migratory bird of the true thrush genus and Turdidae, the wider thrush family. It is named after the European robin because of its reddish-orange breast, though the two species are not clos ...

(''Turdus migratorius'') in Ohio. Females are 27 to 51 mm long and 0.8 to 1.44 wide, whereas the males are smaller being 7 to 12 mm long and 0.6 to 0.8 mm wide. The proboscis is cone-shaped and 0.57 to 0.86 mm long and is divided into anterior and posterior portions. The anterior portion of the proboscis has 18 longitudinal rows of hooks each with 4 to 5 hooks (averaging a total of 76 hooks), and each hook having posteriorly directed roots. The posterior region of the proboscis has around 30 longitudinal rows of small hooks each with 4 to 6 hooks (averaging a total of 130).There are five to eight pyriform cement glands. Testes are oval (0.98 to 1.03 mm by 0.26 to 0.35 mm). Leminsci are filiform and have 6 nuclei each. The worms have been found in the intermediate host, grasshoppers. The eggs have 4 membranes, are 47.5 um long and have an elongation ratio of 1.86. *''Mediorhynchus indicus'' Varghese-George, Mathai-Nadakal, Kunjanpillai-Vijayakumaran and Rajendran, 1981 *''Mediorhynchus kuntzi'' Ward, 1960 ''M. kuntzi'' has been found parasitizing curlews (''Numenius'') in

. The proboscis has 24 rows of five to six hooks. *''Mediorhynchus lanius'' Amin, Nguyen, and Heckmann, 2008 ''M. Mediorhynchus lanius'' has been found infesting the Long-tailed shrike (''Lanius schach'') in the Quang Ninh Province,

Vietnam Vietnam, officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam (SRV), is a country at the eastern edge of mainland Southeast Asia, with an area of about and a population of over 100 million, making it the world's List of countries and depende ...

. It is named after the genus name of the host species ''Lanius'' *''Mediorhynchus lagodekhiensis'' Kuraschvili, 1955 *''Mediorhynchus leptis'' Ward, 1966 ''M. leptis'' has been found parasitizing the

Common kestrel The common kestrel (''Falco tinnunculus''), also known as the European kestrel, Eurasian kestrel or Old World kestrel, is a species of bird of prey, predatory bird belonging to the kestrel group of the falcon family (biology), family Falconidae. ...

(''Falco tinnunculus'') in

. The proboscis has 22 longitudinal rows of five to six hooks. *''Mediorhynchus lophurae'' Wang, 1966 ''M. lophurae'' is a parasite of the

Silver pheasant The silver pheasant (''Lophura nycthemera'') is a species of pheasant found in forests, mainly in mountains, of mainland Southeast Asia and eastern and southern China. It is introduced on Victoria Island in Nahuel Huapi Lake, Neuquén, Argenti ...

(''Lophura nycthemera'') and is found in Lang Son,

. *''Mediorhynchus mariae'' George and Nadakal, 1984 *''Mediorhynchus mattei'' Marchand and Vassiliades, 1982 ''M. mattei'' has been found in the digestive tract of the

Northern red-billed hornbill The northern red-billed hornbill (''Tockus erythrorhynchus'') is a species of hornbill in the family Bucerotidae. It is found from southern Mauritania through Somalia and northeast Tanzania. There are five species of red-billed hornbills recogni ...

(''Tockus erythrorhynchus'') which is the type-host in

Senegal Senegal, officially the Republic of Senegal, is the westernmost country in West Africa, situated on the Atlantic Ocean coastline. It borders Mauritania to Mauritania–Senegal border, the north, Mali to Mali–Senegal border, the east, Guinea t ...

. Male worms are 2–3 cm in length, females are 3–11 cm in length. It was described in 1982; its name honours French

zoologist Zoology ( , ) is the scientific study of animals. Its studies include the structure, embryology, classification, habits, and distribution of all animals, both living and extinct, and how they interact with their ecosystems. Zoology is one ...

Xavier Mattei who collected the birds containing this acantocephalan used to identify the species. *''Mediorhynchus meiringi'' Bisseru, 1960 *''Mediorhynchus micranthus'' (Rudolphi, 1819) ''M. micranthus'' was found infesting the

Eurasian skylark The Eurasian skylark (''Alauda arvensis'') is a passerine bird in the lark family, Alaudidae. It is a widespread species found across Europe and the Palearctic with introduced populations in Australia, New Zealand and on the Hawaiian Islands. I ...

(''Alauda arvensis'') and the

Crested lark The crested lark (''Galerida cristata'') is a species of lark widespread across Eurasia and North Africa, northern Africa. It is a non-migratory bird, but can occasionally be found as a Vagrancy (biology), vagrant in Great Britain. Taxonomy and ...

(''Galerida cristata'') in the Golestan Province of

Iran Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran (IRI) and also known as Persia, is a country in West Asia. It borders Iraq to the west, Turkey, Azerbaijan, and Armenia to the northwest, the Caspian Sea to the north, Turkmenistan to the nort ...

. *''Mediorhynchus mirabilis'' (Marval, 1905) *'' Mediorhynchus mokgalongi'' Smales, Halajian, Luus-Powell, and Tavakol, 2018 The proboscis of ''M. mokgalongi'' has between 125 and 156 hooks arranged in 24 to 26 longitudinal rows of 24 to 26 hooks followed by 30 rows of 5 to 6 spines. It was found infesting a Karoo Thrush bird (''Turdus smithi'') in

Polokwane Polokwane (, meaning "Sanctuary" in Northern SothoPolokwane - The Heart of the Limpopo Provin ...

Limpopo Province Limpopo () is the northernmost province of South Africa. It is named after the Limpopo River, which forms the province's western and northern borders. The term Limpopo is derived from Rivombo (Livombo/Lebombo), a group of Tsonga settlers ...

. The parasite was named after Mahlo Mokgalong for his contribution to the field of bird parasitology. *''Mediorhynchus muritensis'' Lundstrom, 1942 *''Mediorhynchus nickoli'' Khan, Bilqees and Muti-ur-Rehman, 2004 ''M. nickoli'' has been found parasitizing the

Black kite The black kite (''Milvus migrans'') is a medium-sized bird of prey in the family Accipitridae, which also includes many other diurnal raptors. It is thought to be the world's most abundant species of Accipitridae, although some populations have ...

(''Milvus migrans'') in

. It is distinguished mainly by a unique proboscis armature of 10 longitudinal rows having 7–8 hooks and six longitudinal rows having 6–8 spines and eggs measuring 0.046–0.051 mm by 0.0076–0.015 mm. *''Mediorhynchus numidae'' (Baer, 1925) ''M. numidae'' was found infesting the

(''Numida meliagris'') in

Pretoria Pretoria ( ; ) is the Capital of South Africa, administrative capital of South Africa, serving as the seat of the Executive (government), executive branch of government, and as the host to all foreign embassies to the country. Pretoria strad ...

Gauteng Province Gauteng ( , ; Sotho-Tswana for 'place of gold'; or ) is one of the nine provinces of South Africa. Situated on the Highveld, Gauteng is the smallest province by land area in South Africa. Although Gauteng accounts for only 1.5% of the coun ...

. Meyer renamed this species in 1932 from ''Heteroplus numidae''. The proboscis has twelve longitudinal rows of three hooks. *''Mediorhynchus orientalis'' Belopolskaya, 1953 In an aviary setting, M. orientalis was found infesting the purple starling (''Lamprotornis purpureus''),

Rüppell's starling Rüppell's starling (''Lamprotornis purpuroptera''), also known as Rueppell's glossy-starling or Rueppell's long-tailed starling, is a species of starling in the family Sturnidae. It is found in the African countries of Burundi, Chad, the Democr ...

(''Lamprotornis purpuroptera''), and the

Bali myna The Bali myna (''Leucopsar rothschildi''), also known as Rothschild's mynah, Bali starling, or Bali mynah, locally known as jalak Bali, is a medium-sized (up to long), stocky myna, almost wholly white with a long, drooping crest, and black tip ...

(''Leucopsar rothschildi'') with the intermediate hosts being the Surinam cockroach (''Pycnoscelus surinamensis'') and the

American cockroach The American cockroach (''Periplaneta americana'') is the largest species of common cockroach, and often considered a pest. In certain regions of the U.S. it is colloquially known as the waterbug, though it is not a true waterbug since it is not ...

(''Periplaneta americana''). The eggs are 53 um long and have an elongation ratio of 2.12. *''Mediorhynchus oswaldocruzi'' Travassos, 1923 *''Mediorhynchus otidis'' (Miescher, 1841) *''Mediorhynchus pandei'' Bhattacharya, 2007 *''Mediorhynchus papillosus'' Van Cleave, 1916 ''M papillosus'' was found infesting the

rufous-collared sparrow The rufous-collared sparrow or Andean sparrow (''Zonotrichia capensis'') is an American sparrow found in a wide range of habitats, often near humans, from the extreme south-east of Mexico to Tierra del Fuego, and the island of Hispaniola (split ...

s, (''Zonotrichia capensis'') in northern and central Chile. The eggs are 42.5 um long and have an elongation ratio of 2.02. It is the

type species In International_Code_of_Zoological_Nomenclature, zoological nomenclature, a type species (''species typica'') is the species name with which the name of a genus or subgenus is considered to be permanently taxonomically associated, i.e., the spe ...

of the genus. ''M. bakeri'' but was found to be a junior synonym was found infesting the small intestines of the

Northern bobwhite The northern bobwhite (''Colinus virginianus''), also known as the Virginia quail or (in its home range) bobwhite quail, is a ground-dwelling bird native to Canada, the United States, Mexico, and Cuba, with introduced populations elsewhere in th ...

(''Colinus virginianus'') in

Leon County, Florida Leon County () is a County (United States), county in the Florida Panhandle, Panhandle of the U.S. state of Florida. It was named after the Spanish explorer Juan Ponce de León. As of the 2020 United States census, 2020 census, the population w ...

. ''M. alecturae'' (Johnston and Edmonds, 1947)Johnston & Edmonds, 1947 : ''Australian Acanthocephala n° 6.'' Records of the South Australian Museum, volume 8, pages 555–562 ur

. is considreded a junior synonym of ''M papillosus''. It occurs only in the

Australian brushturkey The Australian brushturkey, Australian brush-turkey, or gweela (''Alectura lathami''), also frequently called the bush turkey or scrub turkey, is a common, widespread species of mound-building bird from the family (biology), family Megapode, Meg ...

(''Alectura lathami'') and located in Queensland, Australia. It is named after the genus name of the host species ''Alectura''. *''Mediorhynchus passerus'' Das, 1951 *''Mediorhynchus pauciuncinatus'' Dollfus, 1959 *''Mediorhynchus peckeri'' Bhattacharya, 1999 *''Mediorhynchus peruensis'' Moya, Martinez and Tantalean, 2011 ''M. peruensis'' was found infesting the Chiguanco thrush (''Turdus chiguanco'') in Peru. *''Mediorhynchus petrochenkoi'' Gvosdev and Soboleva, 1966 *''Mediorhynchus pintoi'' Travassos, 1923 ''M. pintoi'' was found infesting the

Spotted nothura __NOTOC__ The spotted nothura (''Nothura maculosa'') is a species of tinamou. This bird is native to grassy habitats in eastern and southern Brazil, Paraguay,Bolivia, Uruguay, and eastern and northern Argentina.Clements, J. (2007) Description Th ...

(''Nothura maculosa'') from

Minas Gerais Minas Gerais () is one of the 27 federative units of Brazil, being the fourth largest state by area and the second largest in number of inhabitants with a population of 20,539,989 according to the 2022 Brazilian census, 2022 census. Located in ...

Brazil Brazil, officially the Federative Republic of Brazil, is the largest country in South America. It is the world's List of countries and dependencies by area, fifth-largest country by area and the List of countries and dependencies by population ...

. Only a damaged female specimen was discovered, and the original description is lost. *''Mediorhynchus quilonensis'' Bhattacharya, 2007 *''Mediorhynchus rajasthanensis'' Gupta, 1976 *''Mediorhynchus robustus'' Van Cleave, 1916 ''M. robustus'' was found infesting the intestines of a

Yellow-breasted chat The yellow-breasted chat (''Icteria virens'') is a large songbird found in America, and is the only member of the family Icteriidae. It was once a member of the New World warbler family Parulidae, but in 2017, the American Ornithological Socie ...

(''Icteria virens'') in

Washington Washington most commonly refers to: * George Washington (1732–1799), the first president of the United States * Washington (state), a state in the Pacific Northwest of the United States * Washington, D.C., the capital of the United States ** A ...

United States The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...

and the Long-tailed Meadowlark (''Sturnella loyca'') in the

Biobío Region The Biobío Region ( ) is one of Chile's sixteen regions (first-order administrative divisions). With a population of 1.5 million, thus being the third most populated region in Chile, it is divided into three provinces: Arauco, Biobío and C ...

Chile Chile, officially the Republic of Chile, is a country in western South America. It is the southernmost country in the world and the closest to Antarctica, stretching along a narrow strip of land between the Andes, Andes Mountains and the Paci ...

. The largest hooks are 38 microns. The intermediate hosts for this worm are unknown. ''M. Robustus'' has been found in larval cystacanth form the

Raccoon dog ''Nyctereutes'' (Greek: ''nyx, nykt-'' "night" + ''ereutēs'' "wanderer") is a genus of canid which includes only two extant species, both known as raccoon dogs: the common raccoon dog (''Nyctereutes procyonoides'') and the Japanese raccoon do ...

(''Nyctereutes procyonoides'') in

Japan Japan is an island country in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean off the northeast coast of the Asia, Asian mainland, it is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan and extends from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea ...

, but this is likely a dead end host since all known final hosts for this species are ''

Passeriformes A passerine () is any bird of the order Passeriformes (; from Latin 'sparrow' and '-shaped') which includes more than half of all bird species. Sometimes known as perching birds, passerines generally have an anisodactyl arrangement of their ...

''. The eggs are 38 um long and have an elongation ratio of 2.38. *''Mediorhynchus rodensis'' Cosin, 1971 ''M. rodensis'' was found in the small intestine of the

Eurasian jay The Eurasian jay (''Garrulus glandarius'') is a species of passerine bird in the crow family Corvidae. It has pinkish brown plumage with a black stripe on each side of a whitish throat, a bright blue panel on the upper wing and a black tail. The ...

(''Garrulus glandarius'') in

Lakatnik Lakatnik ( ) is a small village located in Svoge Municipality, near the Lakatnik rocks. The village has a train station A train station, railroad station, or railway station is a railway facility where trains stop to load or unload pass ...

in the Vrachanska Planina mountains of

Bulgaria Bulgaria, officially the Republic of Bulgaria, is a country in Southeast Europe. It is situated on the eastern portion of the Balkans directly south of the Danube river and west of the Black Sea. Bulgaria is bordered by Greece and Turkey t ...

.Bechev, D., & Georgiev, D. Review of species of the phylum Acanthocephala recorded from Vrachanska Planina Mountains. *''Mediorhynchus sipocotensis'' Tubangui, 1935Tubangui, M. A. (1935). Additional notes on Philippine Acanthocephala. Philippine Journal of Science, 56(1), 13–17. ''M. sipocotensis'' was found parasitizing the

(''Turdus migratorius'') in

Marion County, Indiana Marion County is located in the U.S. state of Indiana. The 2020 United States census reported a population of 977,203, making it the 54th-most populous county in the U.S., the most populous county in the state, and the main population center ...

. The worms possess a globular proboscis armed with concentric spines and a sac-like body with no spines on the trunk. They also have large unfragmented epidermal nuclei. The females possess two ligament sacs, and the males possess eight cement glands. *''Mediorhynchus spinaepaucitas'' Smales, 2011 ''M. spinaepaucitas'' has been found infesting the

Yellow-throated longclaw The yellow-throated longclaw (''Macronyx croceus'') is a species of bird in the family Motacillidae. Taxonomy and systematics Despite sharing no recent common ancestor, the yellow-throated longclaw and its sister species in ''Macronyx'' are v ...

(''Macronyx croceus'') in the

. *''Mediorhynchus taeniatus'' (Linstow, 1901) ''M. taeniatus'' has been found infesting the African pied hornbill (''Tockus fasciatus'') in the

. It has also been found infesting the

(''Numida meliagris'') in

Kimberley Kimberly or Kimberley may refer to: Places and historical events Australia Queensland * Kimberley, Queensland, a coastal locality in the Shire of Douglas South Australia * County of Kimberley, a cadastral unit in South Australia Ta ...

Northern Cape Province The Northern Cape ( ; ; ) is the largest and most sparsely populated province of South Africa. It was created in 1994 when the Cape Province was split up. Its capital is Kimberley. It includes the Kalahari Gemsbok National Park, part of the Kga ...

and the Southern Yellow-billed Hornbill (''Tockus leucomelas'') in

. It was renamed from ''Echinorhynchus taeniatus'' to its present name by Dollfus in 1936. *''Mediorhynchus tanagrae'' (Rudolphi, 1819) *''Mediorhynchus tenuis'' Meyer, 1931 ''M. tenuis'' was found in the small intestine of the Common rock thrush (''Monticola saxatilis'') in the Iskarskoto defile in the Vrachanska Planina mountains of

. It is also found in passeriforms in

North Africa North Africa (sometimes Northern Africa) is a region encompassing the northern portion of the African continent. There is no singularly accepted scope for the region. However, it is sometimes defined as stretching from the Atlantic shores of t ...

. The proboscis has 24 longitudinal rows of four to five hooks. *''Mediorhynchus textori'' Barus, Six and Majumdar, 1978 ''M. textori'' is a parasite of the

Village weaver The village weaver (''Ploceus cucullatus''), also known as the spotted-backed weaver or black-headed weaver (the latter leading to easy confusion with ''Ploceus melanocephalus, P. melanocephalus''), is a bird species in the family Ploceidae ...

(''Ploceus cucullatus'' reported as the

synonym A synonym is a word, morpheme, or phrase that means precisely or nearly the same as another word, morpheme, or phrase in a given language. For example, in the English language, the words ''begin'', ''start'', ''commence'', and ''initiate'' are a ...

''Textor cucullatus'') in

Ghana Ghana, officially the Republic of Ghana, is a country in West Africa. It is situated along the Gulf of Guinea and the Atlantic Ocean to the south, and shares borders with Côte d’Ivoire to the west, Burkina Faso to the north, and Togo to t ...

. The proboscis has 10 to 11 longitudinal rows of nine to ten hooks. The eggs are 62.5 um long and have an elongation ratio of 1.54. *''Mediorhynchus thrushi'' Bhattacharya, 2000 *''Mediorhynchus turdi'' Smales, 2011 ''M. turdi'' has been found infesting the African thrush (''Turdus pelios'') in the

. The species name ''turdi'' derives from the genus name of the type host '' Turdus''. *''Mediorhynchus turnixena'' (Tubangui, 1931)Tubangui, M. A. (1933). Notes on Acanthocephala in the Philippines. Philippine Journal of Science, 50(2), 115–128. ''M. turnixena'' was found infesting the Spotted buttonquail (''Turnix ocellata'') in the

Philippines The Philippines, officially the Republic of the Philippines, is an Archipelagic state, archipelagic country in Southeast Asia. Located in the western Pacific Ocean, it consists of List of islands of the Philippines, 7,641 islands, with a tot ...

. *''Mediorhynchus vaginatus'' (Diesing, 1851) ''M. vaginatus'' was found infesting the

Green aracari The green araçari (''Pteroglossus viridis''), is a toucan, a near-passerine bird. It is found in the lowland forests of northeastern South America (the Guiana Shield), in the northeast Amazon Basin, the Guianas and the eastern Orinoco River drain ...

(''Pteroglossus viridis''), the Channel-billed toucan (''Ramphastos vitellinus'' reported as ''Rhamphastus culminatus''), a

Cock-of-the-rock The cocks-of-the-rock, which compose the genus ''Rupicola'', are large cotingid birds native to South America. The first alleged examples of this species were documented to Western science during a research expedition led by the explorer and bio ...

(reported as ''Rupicola crocea'') and the

bobolink The bobolink (''Dolichonyx oryzivorus'') is a small New World blackbird and the only member of the genus ''Dolichonyx''. An old name for this species is the "rice bird", from its tendency to feed on cultivated grains during winter and migration. ...

(''Dolichonyx oryzivorus''). *''Mediorhynchus vancleavei'' (Lundstrom, 1942) ''M. vancleavei'' is a parasite of birds in

Sweden Sweden, formally the Kingdom of Sweden, is a Nordic countries, Nordic country located on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. It borders Norway to the west and north, and Finland to the east. At , Sweden is the largest Nordic count ...

including the

Common sandpiper The common sandpiper (''Actitis hypoleucos'') is a small Palearctic wader. This bird and its Americas, American sister species, the spotted sandpiper (''A. macularia''), make up the genus ''Actitis''. They are parapatric and replace each other ge ...

(''Actitis hypoleucos'' reported as ''Tringa hypoleucos''). The species name ''vancleavei'' is derived from the named of American parasitologist Harley Jones Van Cleave who originally named the genus ''Mediorhynchus''. *''Mediorhynchus wardi'' Schmidt and Canaris, 1967 ''M. wardi'' is a parasite of passeriforms in

. The proboscis has 24 to 26 longitudinal rows of six to eight hooks. The eggs are 52 um long and have an elongation ratio of 1.68. *''Mediorhynchus zosteropis'' (Porta, 1913)Antonio María La Porta, « Acantocefali della Nuova Caledonia e delle isole Loyalty », ?, 1913, p. 165-170. language=italian ''M. zosteropis'' was found in the small intestine of the

Hooded crow The hooded crow (''Corvus cornix''), also colloquially called just hoodie, is a Eurasian bird species in the genus '' Corvus''. Widely distributed, it is found across Northern, Eastern, and Southeastern Europe, as well as parts of the Middle E ...

(''Corvus cornix'') in the

Vratsa Vratsa ( ) is the largest city in northwestern Bulgaria and the administrative and economic centre of the municipality of Vratsa and Vratsa district. It is about north of Sofia, southeast of Montana. Situated at the foot of the Vrachanski Bal ...

in the Vrachanska Planina mountains of

and generally distributed in

New Caledonia New Caledonia ( ; ) is a group of islands in the southwest Pacific Ocean, southwest of Vanuatu and east of Australia. Located from Metropolitan France, it forms a Overseas France#Sui generis collectivity, ''sui generis'' collectivity of t ...

and the

Palaearctic The Palearctic or Palaearctic is a biogeographic realm of the Earth, the largest of eight. Confined almost entirely to the Eastern Hemisphere, it stretches across Europe and Asia, north of the foothills of the Himalayas, and North Africa. Th ...

. It is also reported in the Muscicapidae '' Diaphanopterus naevius similimus'' and the

silvereye The silvereye or wax-eye (''Zosterops lateralis''), also known by its Māori name tauhou, is a very small omnivorous passerine bird of the south-west Pacific. In Australia and New Zealand its common name is sometimes white-eye, but this name is ...

(''Zosterops lateralis'') in

Hosts

The life cycle of an acanthocephalan consists of three stages beginning when an infective acanthor (development of an egg) is released from the intestines of the

definitive host In biology and medicine, a host is a larger organism that harbours a smaller organism; whether a parasitic, a mutualistic, or a commensalist ''guest'' (symbiont). The guest is typically provided with nourishment and shelter. Examples include ...

and then ingested by an arthropod, the

intermediate host In biology and medicine, a host is a larger organism that harbours a smaller organism; whether a parasitic, a mutualistic, or a commensalist ''guest'' (symbiont). The guest is typically provided with nourishment and shelter. Examples include ...

. The intermediate hosts of ''Mediorhynchus'' are insects including grasshoppers and cockroaches. When the acanthor

molt In biology, moulting (British English), or molting (American English), also known as sloughing, shedding, or in many invertebrates, ecdysis, is a process by which an animal casts off parts of its body to serve some beneficial purpose, either at ...

s, the second stage called the acanthella begins. This stage involves penetrating the wall of the mesenteron or the intestine of the intermediate host and growing. The final stage is the infective cystacanth which is the

larva A larva (; : larvae ) is a distinct juvenile form many animals undergo before metamorphosis into their next life stage. Animals with indirect development such as insects, some arachnids, amphibians, or cnidarians typically have a larval phase ...

l or juvenile state of an Acanthocephalan, differing from the adult only in size and stage of sexual development. The cystacanths within the intermediate hosts are consumed by the definitive host, usually attaching to the walls of the intestines, and as adults they reproduce sexually in the intestines. The acanthor are passed in the

feces Feces (also known as faeces American and British English spelling differences#ae and oe, or fæces; : faex) are the solid or semi-solid remains of food that was not digested in the small intestine, and has been broken down by bacteria in the ...

of the definitive host and the cycle repeats. There are no known paratenic hosts (hosts where parasites infest but do not undergo larval development or sexual reproduction) for ''Mediorhynchus''. ''Mediorhynchus'' species exclusively parasitize avian hosts. There are no reported cases of ''Mediorhynchus'' infesting humans in the English language medical literature. File:Numida meleagris -Kruger National Park, South Africa-8a.jpg, alt=Helmeted guineafowl walking in a field, The

Helmeted guineafowl The helmeted guinea fowl (''Numida meleagris'') is the best known of the guinea fowl bird family, Numididae, and the only member of the genus ''Numida''. It is native to Africa, mainly south of the Sahara, and has been widely introduced, as ...

is a host of ''M. africanus'', ''M. numidae'', and ''M. taeniatus'' File:Australian Brushturkey 2 - Newington.jpg, alt=An Australian brushturkey on grass, The

is a host of ''M. alecturae'' File:Red-faced Cisticola (Cisticola erythrops).jpg, alt=A red-faced cisticola on a piece of wood., The Red-faced cisticola is a host of ''M. cisticolae'' File:White-eyed buzzard (Butastur teesa) Photograph By Shantanu Kuveskar 2.jpg, alt=A white-eyed buzzard on a tree branch, The

is a host of ''M. fatimaae'' File:Serengeti Gelbkehlpieper1.jpg, alt=A Yellow-throated longclaw walking on the ground, The

is a host of ''M. spinaepaucitas'' File:Red-billed hornbill (Tockus erythrorhynchus) male.jpg, alt=A northern red-billed hornbill walking on grass, The

northern red-billed hornbill The northern red-billed hornbill (''Tockus erythrorhynchus'') is a species of hornbill in the family Bucerotidae. It is found from southern Mauritania through Somalia and northeast Tanzania. There are five species of red-billed hornbills recogni ...

is the type-host of ''M. mattei'' File:African Pied Hornbill - Kakum NP - Ghana 14 S4E2286 (16177823316) cropped.jpg, alt=An African pied hornbill on a tree branch, The African pied hornbill is a host of ''M. taeniatus'' File:Southern Yellow-billed Hornbill, Tockus leucomelas at Mapungubwe National Park, Limpopo, South Africa (18305273221).jpg, alt=A Southern Yellow-billed Hornbill on a tree branch near the ground, The Southern Yellow-billed Hornbill is a host of ''M. taeniatus'' File:Schwarzmilan.jpg, alt=A black kite (bird) sitting on a metal wire, The

is a host of ''M. nickoli'' File:Yellow-Breasted-Chat-Oregon.jpg, alt=A Yellow-breasted chat on a branch, The

is a host of ''M. robustus'' File:Garrulus glandarius 1 Luc Viatour.jpg, alt=A Eurasian jay on a branch, The

is one of the hosts of ''M. rodensis'' File:Monsax.jpg, alt=A Common rock thrush on a branch, The Common rock thrush is one of the hosts of ''M. tenuis'' File:Nebelkrähe Corvus cornix.jpg, alt=A Hooded crow thrush on a branch, The

is one of the hosts of ''M. zosteropis''

Notes

References

{{Taxonbar, from=Q2783016 Archiacanthocephala