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The Middle Ages in Romania began shortly after the withdrawal of the
Roman legions The Roman legion (, ) was the largest military unit of the Roman army, composed of Roman citizens serving as legionaries. During the Roman Republic the manipular legion comprised 4,200 infantry and 300 cavalry. After the Marian reforms in 1 ...
from the former
Roman Roman or Romans most often refers to: *Rome, the capital city of Italy *Ancient Rome, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD *Roman people, the people of Roman civilization *Epistle to the Romans, shortened to Romans, a letter w ...
province A province is an administrative division within a country or sovereign state, state. The term derives from the ancient Roman , which was the major territorial and administrative unit of the Roman Empire, Roman Empire's territorial possessions ou ...
of
Dacia Dacia (, ; ) was the land inhabited by the Dacians, its core in Transylvania, stretching to the Danube in the south, the Black Sea in the east, and the Tisza in the west. The Carpathian Mountains were located in the middle of Dacia. It thus ro ...
in the late 3rd century and with the start of the
Early Middle Ages The Early Middle Ages (or early medieval period), sometimes controversially referred to as the Dark Ages (historiography), Dark Ages, is typically regarded by historians as lasting from the late 5th to the 10th century. They marked the start o ...
and the
Migration Period The Migration Period ( 300 to 600 AD), also known as the Barbarian Invasions, was a period in European history marked by large-scale migrations that saw the fall of the Western Roman Empire and subsequent settlement of its former territories ...
that followed afterwards respectively. It subsequently came to an end with the reign of Domn
Michael the Brave Michael the Brave ( or ; 1558 – 9 August 1601), born as Mihai Pătrașcu, was the Prince of Wallachia (as Michael II, 1593–1601), Prince of Moldavia (1600) and ''de facto'' ruler of Principality of Transylvania (1570–1711), Transylvani ...
(1593–1601) who managed, for a short time between 1599 and 1600, to rule
Wallachia Wallachia or Walachia (; ; : , : ) is a historical and geographical region of modern-day Romania. It is situated north of the Lower Danube and south of the Southern Carpathians. Wallachia was traditionally divided into two sections, Munteni ...
,
Moldavia Moldavia (, or ; in Romanian Cyrillic alphabet, Romanian Cyrillic: or ) is a historical region and former principality in Eastern Europe, corresponding to the territory between the Eastern Carpathians and the Dniester River. An initially in ...
, and
Transylvania Transylvania ( or ; ; or ; Transylvanian Saxon dialect, Transylvanian Saxon: ''Siweberjen'') is a List of historical regions of Central Europe, historical and cultural region in Central Europe, encompassing central Romania. To the east and ...
together, the three principalities whose territories were to be united some three centuries later to form modern and contemporary
Romania Romania is a country located at the crossroads of Central Europe, Central, Eastern Europe, Eastern and Southeast Europe. It borders Ukraine to the north and east, Hungary to the west, Serbia to the southwest, Bulgaria to the south, Moldova to ...
. Over most of this period,
Banat Banat ( , ; ; ; ) is a geographical and Historical regions of Central Europe, historical region located in the Pannonian Basin that straddles Central Europe, Central and Eastern Europe. It is divided among three countries: the eastern part lie ...
,
Crișana Crișana (, , ) is a geographical and historical region of Romania named after the Criș (Körös) River and its three tributaries: the Crișul Alb, Crișul Negru, and Crișul Repede. In Romania, the term is sometimes extended to include areas ...
,
Maramureș ( ; ; ; ) is a geographical, historical and cultural region in northern Romania and western Ukraine. It is situated in the northeastern Carpathians, along parts of the upper Tisza River drainage basin; it covers the Maramureș Depression and the ...
, and Transylvania – now regions in Romania to the west of the
Carpathian Mountains The Carpathian Mountains or Carpathians () are a range of mountains forming an arc across Central Europe and Southeast Europe. Roughly long, it is the third-longest European mountain range after the Ural Mountains, Urals at and the Scandinav ...
 – were part of the
Kingdom of Hungary The Kingdom of Hungary was a monarchy in Central Europe that existed for nearly a millennium, from 1000 to 1946 and was a key part of the Habsburg monarchy from 1526-1918. The Principality of Hungary emerged as a Christian kingdom upon the Coro ...
. They were divided into several types of administrative units, such as "
counties A county () is a geographic region of a country used for administrative or other purposesL. Brookes (ed.) '' Chambers Dictionary''. Edinburgh: Chambers Harrap Publishers Ltd, 2005. in some nations. The term is derived from the Old French denoti ...
" and "
seats A seat is a place to sit. The term may encompass additional features, such as back, armrest, head restraint but may also refer to concentrations of power in a wider sense (i.e " seat (legal entity)"). See disambiguation. Types of seat The ...
". The heads of the Transylvanian counties or "
counts Count (feminine: countess) is a historical title of nobility in certain European countries, varying in relative status, generally of middling rank in the hierarchy of nobility. Pine, L. G. ''Titles: How the King Became His Majesty''. New York: ...
" were subordinated to a special royal official called ''
voivode Voivode ( ), also spelled voivod, voievod or voevod and also known as vaivode ( ), voivoda, vojvoda, vaivada or wojewoda, is a title denoting a military leader or warlord in Central, Southeastern and Eastern Europe in use since the Early Mid ...
'', but the province was seldom treated as a single unit, since the Székely and
Saxon The Saxons, sometimes called the Old Saxons or Continental Saxons, were a Germanic people of early medieval "Old" Saxony () which became a Carolingian " stem duchy" in 804, in what is now northern Germany. Many of their neighbours were, like th ...
seats were administered separately. In the kingdom,
Romanian Romanian may refer to: *anything of, from, or related to the country and nation of Romania **Romanians, an ethnic group **Romanian language, a Romance language ***Romanian dialects, variants of the Romanian language **Romanian cuisine, traditional ...
peasants, being
Orthodox Orthodox, Orthodoxy, or Orthodoxism may refer to: Religion * Orthodoxy, adherence to accepted norms, more specifically adherence to creeds, especially within Christianity and Judaism, but also less commonly in non-Abrahamic religions like Neo-pag ...
, were exempt from the
tithe A tithe (; from Old English: ''teogoþa'' "tenth") is a one-tenth part of something, paid as a contribution to a religious organization or compulsory tax to government. Modern tithes are normally voluntary and paid in money, cash, cheques or v ...
, an ecclesiastical tax payable by all
Roman Catholic The Catholic Church (), also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with 1.27 to 1.41 billion baptized Catholics worldwide as of 2025. It is among the world's oldest and largest international institut ...
commoners. However, Romanian noblemen slowly lost the ability to participate in political life, as the 14th-century monarchs pursued a zealous pro-Catholic policy. Their position became even worse after 1437 when the so-called "
Union of Three Nations Unio Trium Nationum (Latin for "Union of the Three Nations") was a pact of mutual aid codified in 1437 by three Estates of Transylvania: the (largely Hungarian) nobility, the Saxon (German) patrician class (represented by the Transylvanian Saxo ...
", an alliance of the Hungarian noblemen, the Székelys, and the Saxons, was formed in order to crush the Bobâlna peasant uprising. Wallachia, the first independent
medieval In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the 5th to the late 15th centuries, similarly to the post-classical period of World history (field), global history. It began with the fall of the West ...
state between the Carpathians and the
lower Danube The Danube ( ; see also other names) is the second-longest river in Europe, after the Volga in Russia. It flows through Central and Southeastern Europe, from the Black Forest south into the Black Sea. A large and historically important r ...
was created when
Basarab I Basarab I (), also known as Basarab the Founder (; – 1351/1352), was a ''voivode'' and later the first independent ruler of Wallachia who lived in the first half of the . Many details of his life are uncertain. According to two popular theo ...
(' 1310–1352) terminated the
suzerainty A suzerain (, from Old French "above" + "supreme, chief") is a person, state (polity)">state or polity who has supremacy and dominant influence over the foreign policy">polity.html" ;"title="state (polity)">state or polity">state (polity)">st ...
of the
King of Hungary The King of Hungary () was the Monarchy, ruling head of state of the Kingdom of Hungary from 1000 (or 1001) to 1918. The style of title "Apostolic King of Hungary" (''Magyarország apostoli királya'') was endorsed by Pope Clement XIII in 1758 ...
with his victory in the
battle of Posada The Battle of Posada (9–12 November 1330)Djuvara, pp. 19– "''... marea bătălie zisă de la Posada (9–12 noiembrie 1330)''". was fought between Basarab I of Wallachia and Charles I of Hungary (also known as Charles Robert). The small Wa ...
in 1330. The independence of Moldavia, to the east of the Carpathians, was achieved by Bogdan I (1359–1365), a nobleman from the
Voivodeship of Maramureș The Voivodeship of Maramureș (, or ), was a Romanian voivodeship centered in the region of the same name within the Kingdom of Hungary. It was the most powerful and well-organized Romanian entity in the broader area of Transylvania during th ...
, who led a revolt against the former ruler who was appointed by the Hungarian monarch. The independence of the two principalities, however, was rarely secure, and
vassalage A vassal or liege subject is a person regarded as having a mutual obligation to a lord or monarch, in the context of the feudal system in medieval Europe. While the subordinate party is called a vassal, the dominant party is called a suzerai ...
to multiple states became an important aspect of their diplomacy. Although Wallachia paid tribute to the
Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire (), also called the Turkish Empire, was an empire, imperial realm that controlled much of Southeast Europe, West Asia, and North Africa from the 14th to early 20th centuries; it also controlled parts of southeastern Centr ...
from 1417, and Moldavia from 1456, their two medieval monarchs, Mircea the Old of Wallachia (1386–1418) and Stephen the Great of Moldavia (1457–1504) conducted successful military operations against the
Ottoman Turks The Ottoman Turks () were a Turkic peoples, Turkic ethnic group in Anatolia. Originally from Central Asia, they migrated to Anatolia in the 13th century and founded the Ottoman Empire, in which they remained socio-politically dominant for the e ...
. The two principalities' trade with other parts of Europe began to decrease after the last decades of the 15th century. Before this the sale of hides, grain, honey, and wax to the
Holy Roman Empire The Holy Roman Empire, also known as the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation after 1512, was a polity in Central and Western Europe, usually headed by the Holy Roman Emperor. It developed in the Early Middle Ages, and lasted for a millennium ...
,
Venice Venice ( ; ; , formerly ) is a city in northeastern Italy and the capital of the Veneto Regions of Italy, region. It is built on a group of 118 islands that are separated by expanses of open water and by canals; portions of the city are li ...
, and Poland, and the import of silk, weapons and other manufactured goods from these areas had been widespread, but by the end of the 16th century the Ottoman Empire became the main market for Romanian products. Transylvania, together with the neighboring counties, gained the status of an autonomous state under Ottoman suzerainty after the central territories of the Kingdom of Hungary had been annexed by the Ottomans in 1541. The fall of the kingdom also deprived Wallachia and Moldavia of their main ally in the struggle against the Ottoman Empire. In 1594, Michael the Brave of Wallachia joined the anti-Ottoman alliance initiated by
Pope Clement VIII Pope Clement VIII (; ; 24 February 1536 – 3 March 1605), born Ippolito Aldobrandini, was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 30 January 1592 to his death in March 1605. Born in Fano, Papal States to a prominen ...
. After a series of victory over the Ottomans, he turned against Transylvania and Moldavia where pro-Polish and pro-Ottoman princes were reigning. He invaded and occupied Transylvania in 1599, and Moldavia in 1600. Although the personal union of the three countries collapsed four months later, it served as an ideal for later generations working for the unification of the lands that now form Romania.


Early Middle Ages (late 8th century–early 13th century)

At the end of the 8th century the establishment of the
Khazar Khaganate The Khazars ; 突厥可薩 ''Tūjué Kěsà'', () were a Nomadic empire, nomadic Turkic people who, in the late 6th century CE, established a major commercial empire covering the southeastern section of modern European Russia, southern Ukra ...
north of the
Caucasus Mountains The Caucasus Mountains * * Azerbaijani: , * * * * * * * * * * * is a mountain range at the intersection of Asia and Europe. Stretching between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, they are surrounded by the Caucasus region ...
created an obstacle in the path of nomadic people moving westward.Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, p. 52. In the following period, the local population of the Carpathian–Danubian area profited from the peaceful political climate and a unitary
material culture Material culture is culture manifested by the Artifact (archaeology), physical objects and architecture of a society. The term is primarily used in archaeology and anthropology, but is also of interest to sociology, geography and history. The fie ...
, called " Dridu", that developed in the region.Spinei 2009, p. 50. Finds from the ''Dridu'' settlements, such as coulters and
sickle A sickle, bagging hook, reaping-hook or grasshook is a single-handed agricultural tool designed with variously curved blades and typically used for harvesting or reaping grain crops, or cutting Succulent plant, succulent forage chiefly for feedi ...
s, confirm the role of agriculture in their economy. In the 9th century centrifugal movements commenced in the Khazar Kaghanate. One of the subject peoples, the
Hungarians Hungarians, also known as Magyars, are an Ethnicity, ethnic group native to Hungary (), who share a common Culture of Hungary, culture, Hungarian language, language and History of Hungary, history. They also have a notable presence in former pa ...
left its dominion and settled in the region between the rivers Don and
Dniester The Dniester ( ) is a transboundary river in Eastern Europe. It runs first through Ukraine and then through Moldova (from which it more or less separates the breakaway territory of Transnistria), finally discharging into the Black Sea on Uk ...
. They abandoned the
steppes In physical geography, a steppe () is an ecoregion characterized by grassland plains without closed forests except near rivers and lakes. Steppe biomes may include: * the montane grasslands and shrublands biome * the tropical and subtropical gr ...
and crossed the Carpathians around 896. According to the 13th-century ''
Gesta Hungarorum ''Gesta Hungarorum'', or ''The Deeds of the Hungarians'', is the earliest book about Kingdom of Hungary, Hungarian history which has survived for posterity. Its genre is not chronicle, but ''gesta'', meaning "deeds" or "acts", which is a medie ...
'' ("Deeds of the Hungarians") at the time of the
Hungarian conquest The Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin, also known as the Hungarian conquest or the Hungarian land-taking (), was a series of historical events ending with the settlement of the Hungarians in Central Europe in the late 9th and early 10t ...
,
Transylvania Transylvania ( or ; ; or ; Transylvanian Saxon dialect, Transylvanian Saxon: ''Siweberjen'') is a List of historical regions of Central Europe, historical and cultural region in Central Europe, encompassing central Romania. To the east and ...
was inhabited by "Vlachs and Slavs" (''blasij et sclaui'') and ruled by
Gelou Gelou (; ) was the Vlach ruler of Transylvania at the time of the Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin around 900 AD, according to the ''Gesta Hungarorum''. Although the ''Gesta Hungarorum'', which was written after 1150, does not indica ...
, "a certain Vlach" (''quidam'' ''blacus''), while Crișana was inhabited by several peoples, among them
Székelys The Székelys (, Old Hungarian script, Székely runes: ), also referred to as Szeklers, are a Hungarians, Hungarian subgroup living mostly in the Székely Land in Romania. In addition to their native villages in Suceava County in Bukovina, a ...
. Whether the author of the ''Gesta'' had any knowledge of the real conditions of the turn of the 9th and 10th centuries remains debated by historians. In 953, the '' gyula'', the second leader in rank of the Hungarian tribal federation, converted to Christianity in
Constantinople Constantinople (#Names of Constantinople, see other names) was a historical city located on the Bosporus that served as the capital of the Roman Empire, Roman, Byzantine Empire, Byzantine, Latin Empire, Latin, and Ottoman Empire, Ottoman empire ...
. Around that time, according to the
Byzantine Emperor The foundation of Constantinople in 330 AD marks the conventional start of the Eastern Roman Empire, which Fall of Constantinople, fell to the Ottoman Empire in 1453 AD. Only the emperors who were recognized as legitimate rulers and exercised s ...
Constantine VII Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus (; 17 May 905 – 9 November 959) was the fourth Byzantine emperor of the Macedonian dynasty, reigning from 6 June 913 to 9 November 959. He was the son of Emperor Leo VI and his fourth wife, Zoe Karbonopsina, an ...
, the Hungarians controlled the region on the border of modern Romania and Hungary along the rivers
Timiș The Timiș or Tamiš (, , , ) is a river that flows through the Banat region of Romania and Serbia and joins the Danube near Pančevo, in northern Serbia. Due to its position in the region, it has been labeled as the "spine of the Banat". N ...
, Mureș, Criș, Tisa and ''Toutis''. In 1003, as the ''Annals of Hildesheim'' narrates,
Stephen I Stephen I may refer to: *Pope Stephen I, Bishop of Rome from 254 to 257 *Stephen I of Antioch, Patriarch of Antioch from 342 to 344 *Stephen I of Iberia (died 627), of the Guaramid Dynasty, presiding prince of Iberia from c. 590 to 627 *Ecumenical ...
, the first crowned monarch of Hungary (''c.'' 1000–1038) "led an army against his maternal uncle, Gyula, and occupied Gyula's country. Stephen I granted privileges to the Roman Catholic Church, for example by ordering the general imposition of the tithe upon the population. Burials in most local pre-Christian cemeteries, for example at
Hunedoara Hunedoara (; ; ) is a municipiu, city in Hunedoara County, Transylvania, Romania. It is located in southwestern Transylvania near the Poiana Ruscă Mountains, and administers five villages: Boș (''Bós''), Groș (''Grós''), Hășdat (''Hosdát ...
, only ceased around 1100. Stephen I also divided his kingdom, including the territories of modern Romania he had occupied, into counties, that is administrative units around royal fortresses, each administered by a royal official called count.Sedlar 1994, p. 275. In time the ''voivode'', a higher royal official first attested in 1176, became the principal of all the counts in Transylvania. In contrast with Transylvania, the counts in modern Banat and Crișana remained in direct contact with the king who appointed and replaced them at will. From the end of the 9th century the
Pechenegs The Pechenegs () or Patzinaks, , Middle Turkic languages, Middle Turkic: , , , , , , ka, პაჭანიკი, , , ; sh-Latn-Cyrl, Pečenezi, separator=/, Печенези, also known as Pecheneg Turks were a semi-nomadic Turkic peopl ...
controlled the territories to the east and south of the Carpathians. According to the '' Eymund's saga'', they fought together with the '' Blökkumen'' ("Romanians") in the
Kievan Rus' Kievan Rus', also known as Kyivan Rus,. * was the first East Slavs, East Slavic state and later an amalgam of principalities in Eastern Europe from the late 9th to the mid-13th century.John Channon & Robert Hudson, ''Penguin Historical At ...
in the 1010s. The Pechenegs were swept aside from their territories by the
Cumans The Cumans or Kumans were a Turkic people, Turkic nomadic people from Central Asia comprising the western branch of the Cumania, Cuman–Kipchak confederation who spoke the Cuman language. They are referred to as Polovtsians (''Polovtsy'') in Ru ...
between 1064 and 1078. A late variant of the oldest
Turkish Turkish may refer to: * Something related to Turkey ** Turkish language *** Turkish alphabet ** Turkish people, a Turkic ethnic group and nation *** Turkish citizen, a citizen of Turkey *** Turkish communities in the former Ottoman Empire * The w ...
chronicle, the '' Oghuz-name'' relates that the Cumans defeated many nations, including the ''Ulâq'' ("Romanians"). Some of the Pechenegs fled into the Kingdom of Hungary where they were employed to guard the border districts, for instance in Transylvania. The 11th-century settlements in Transylvania are characterized by small
huts A hut is a small dwelling, which may be constructed of various local materials. Huts are a type of vernacular architecture because they are built of readily available materials such as wood, snow, stone, grass, palm leaves, branches, clay, hid ...
with ceramic assemblages marked by clay
cauldrons A cauldron (or caldron) is a large pot (kettle) for cooking or boiling over an open fire, with a lid and frequently with an arc-shaped hanger and/or integral handles or feet. There is a rich history of cauldron lore in religion, mythology, an ...
. The increasing number of coin finds suggests that the province experienced economic growth in the late 11th century. The first document pertaining to the province is a royal charter of 1075 referring to taxes on salt levied at
Turda Turda (; , ; ; ) is a Municipiu, city in Cluj County, Transylvania, Romania. It is located in the southeastern part of the county, from the county seat, Cluj-Napoca, to which it is connected by the European route E81, and from nearby Câmpia ...
. The earliest precious metal mine in medieval Transylvania, the silver mine at
Rodna Rodna (formerly ''Rodna Veche''; ; ) is a Commune in Romania, commune in Bistrița-Năsăud County, Transylvania, Romania. It is composed of two villages, Rodna and Valea Vinului (''Radnaborberek''). Its name is derived from a Slavic word, ''wikt ...
was first mentioned in 1235. In the 12th and 13th centuries ''hospites'' ("guest settlers") arrived in Transylvania from Germany and from the
French-speaking French ( or ) is a Romance language of the Indo-European family. Like all other Romance languages, it descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire. French evolved from Northern Old Gallo-Romance, a descendant of the Latin spoken in ...
regions on the river
Rhine The Rhine ( ) is one of the List of rivers of Europe, major rivers in Europe. The river begins in the Swiss canton of Graubünden in the southeastern Swiss Alps. It forms part of the Swiss-Liechtenstein border, then part of the Austria–Swit ...
who in time became collectively known as "Saxons". In 1224
Andrew II of Hungary Andrew II (, , , ; 117721 September 1235), also known as Andrew of Jerusalem, was King of Hungary and King of Croatia, Croatia between 1205 and 1235. He ruled the Principality of Halych from 1188 until 1189/1190, and again between 1208/1209 and ...
(1205–1235) granted special liberties to the Saxons who had settled in southern Transylvania. For instance, they were authorized to choose their local leaders; only the head of the entire community, the count of Sibiu, was appointed by the king. They were also granted the right to use "the forest of the Romanians and the Pechenegs". The first references to
viniculture Viticulture (, "vine-growing"), viniculture (, "wine-growing"), or winegrowing is the cultivation and harvesting of grapes. It is a branch of the science of horticulture. While the native territory of ''Vitis vinifera'', the common grape vine, ...
in Transylvania are connected to the vineyards of the ''hospites'' of
Cricău Cricău (; ) is a Commune in Romania, commune located in the central part of Alba County, Transylvania, Romania. It has a population of 1,879 as of 2021 and is composed of three villages: Craiva (''Királypataka''), Cricău, and Tibru (''Tibor'') ...
,
Ighiu Ighiu (; ) is a commune located in Alba County, Transylvania, Romania. The commune is composed of five villages: Bucerdea Vinoasă (''Borosbocsárd''), Ighiel (''Igenpataka''), Ighiu, Șard (''Sárd''), and Țelna (''Celna''). The commune is l ...
, and
Romos Romos (; ) is a commune in Hunedoara County, Transylvania, Romania. It is composed of five villages: Ciungu Mare (''Csunzshavas''), Pișchinți (''Piskinc''), Romos, Romoșel (''Romoszhely''), and Vaidei (''Vajdej''). The commune is located at t ...
. As a result of the Saxon immigration, the Székelys – Hungarian-speaking free warriors cultivating communal lands – were transferred to the southeast of the province. From the 13th century they were governed independently from the ''voivode'' by a royal official, the
count of the Székelys The Count of the Székelys (, ) was the leader of the Hungarian-speaking Székelys in Transylvania, in the medieval Kingdom of Hungary. First mentioned in royal charters of the 13th century, the counts were the highest-ranking royal officials in ...
. Besides the Saxons, the
Cistercians The Cistercians (), officially the Order of Cistercians (, abbreviated as OCist or SOCist), are a Catholic religious order of monks and nuns that branched off from the Benedictines and follow the Rule of Saint Benedict, as well as the contri ...
became the agents of expansion in Transylvania. When their abbey at Cârța was established in the early 13th century, Andrew II ordered that the strip of land running up to the mountains between the rivers Olt,
Cârțișoara Cârțișoara (also ''Cârța Românească''; ; ) is a Commune in Romania, commune in Sibiu County, Transylvania, Romania. It is composed of a single village, Cârțișoara. Bâlea Lake is located on the territory of Cârțișoara. The commune is ...
and Arpaș be transferred from the Romanians to the new monastery. Following the defeat of the Cumans by the Mongols on the river Kalka in 1223, some chieftains of the western Cuman tribes accepted the authority of the king of Hungary. Their conversion led to the creation of the
Roman Catholic Diocese of Cumania The Roman Catholic Diocese of Cumania was a Latin-rite bishopric west of the Siret River (in present-day Romania) from 1228 to 1241. The lands incorporated into the diocese had been dominated by the nomadic Cumans since about 1100. Catholic miss ...
to the east of the Carpathians. However, the Orthodox Romanian population of the territory received the sacraments from "some pseudo-bishops of the Greek rite", according to a
papal bull A papal bull is a type of public decree, letters patent, or charter issued by the pope of the Catholic Church. It is named after the leaden Seal (emblem), seal (''bulla (seal), bulla'') traditionally appended to authenticate it. History Papal ...
of 1234. In 1233
Oltenia Oltenia (), also called Lesser Wallachia in antiquated versions – with the alternative Latin names , , and between 1718 and 1739 – is a historical province and geographical region of Romania in western Wallachia. It is situated between the Da ...
was organized into a military frontier zone of the Kingdom of Hungary, called the
Banate of Severin The Banate of Severin or Banate of Szörény (; ; ; , ; , ) was a Hungarian political, military and administrative unit with a special role in the initially anti- Bulgarian, latterly anti- Ottoman defensive system of the medieval Kingdom of Hu ...
. The expansion across the Carpathians was stopped by the invasion of the Mongols that lasted from March 31, 1241 to April, 1242. It was a major watershed in the medieval history of the region: although the number of casualties is disputed, even the most prudent estimates do not go below 15 percent of the total population.


High Middle Ages (1242–1396)


Outer-Carpathian regions

After the withdrawal from the Kingdom of Hungary, the Mongol forces halted at Sarai (now Russia) on the
Volga River The Volga (, ) is the longest river in Europe and the longest endorheic basin river in the world. Situated in Russia, it flows through Central Russia to Southern Russia and into the Caspian Sea. The Volga has a length of , and a catchment ...
where their leader,
Batu Khan Batu Khan (–1255) was a Mongol ruler and founder of the Golden Horde, a constituent of the Mongol Empire established after Genghis Khan's demise. Batu was a son of Jochi, thus a grandson of Genghis Khan. His '' ulus'' ruled over the Kievan ...
set up his own capital. Henceforth, the steppes between the rivers
Dnieper The Dnieper or Dnepr ( ), also called Dnipro ( ), is one of the major transboundary rivers of Europe, rising in the Valdai Hills near Smolensk, Russia, before flowing through Belarus and Ukraine to the Black Sea. Approximately long, with ...
and
Danube The Danube ( ; see also #Names and etymology, other names) is the List of rivers of Europe#Longest rivers, second-longest river in Europe, after the Volga in Russia. It flows through Central and Southeastern Europe, from the Black Forest sou ...
were under the influence of the Mongols of the Volga, known as the Golden Horde. From the 1260s, a relative of Batu,
Nogai Khan Nogai, or Noğay ( Kypchak and Turki: نوغای; also spelled Nogay, Nogaj, Nohai, Nokhai, Noqai, Ngoche, Noche, Kara Nokhai, and Isa Nogai; died 1299/1300) was a general and kingmaker of the Golden Horde. His great grandfather was Jochi, son o ...
settled at
Isaccea Isaccea () is a small town in Tulcea County, in Northern Dobruja, Romania, on the right bank of the Danube, 35 km north-west of Tulcea. According to the 2021 census, it has a population of 4,408. The town has been inhabited for thousands o ...
on the Lower Danube and became the absolute master of the neighboring regions. He made himself independent of the Golden Horde around 1280, but was killed in a battle in 1299. By the middle of the 14th century, the westernmost Mongol territories had become subject to frequent Polish and Hungarian military offensives. Grand Prince Olgierd of Lithuania penetrated farther into the territories controlled by the Golden Horde than any European army had hitherto done.Sedlar 1994, p. 380. He won a major victory over the united Mongol troops on the Dnieper near the Black Sea in 1363.Vásáry 2005, p. 164.


Intra-Carpathian regions

Having been raided twice by the Mongols within a single year, Transylvania felt the consequences of the invasion of 1241–1242 for more than two decades. The administrative centers of the province, such as
Alba Iulia Alba Iulia (; or ''Carlsburg'', formerly ''Weißenburg''; ; ) is a city that serves as the seat of Alba County in the west-central part of Romania. Located on the river Mureș (river), Mureș in the historical region of Transylvania, it has a ...
and
Cetatea de Baltă Cetatea de Baltă (; ) is a commune in Alba County, Transylvania, Romania. The commune is composed of four villages: Cetatea de Baltă, Crăciunelu de Sus (''Christendorf''; ''Felsőkarácsonyfalva''), Sântămărie (''Frauenkirch''; ''Boldogfalva' ...
, had been destroyed. Due to the severe depopulation, a process of organized colonization commenced that lasted for several decades. For example, a new wave of colonization resulted in the establishment of the Saxon seats of
Sighișoara Sighișoara (; ; ; Transylvanian Saxon dialect, Transylvanian Saxon: ''Schäsbrich'', ''Šesburχ'', or ''Scheeßprich''; ; or ) is a Municipiu, city on the Târnava Mare, Târnava Mare River in Mureș County, central Romania. Located in the ...
and
Mediaș Mediaș (; , , Transylvanian Saxon dialect, Transylvanian Saxon: ''Medwesch''/''Medveš''/''Medwisch'', ) is the second largest municipiu, town and municipality in Sibiu County, Transylvania, central Romania. Geography Mediaș is located in ...
; and the lord of Ilia received, in 1292, royal permission to settle Romanians in the lands he owned. Since only castles built of stone and walled towns had been able to resist Mongol attacks, following the withdrawal of the Mongols the kings encouraged both the landowners and the townspeople to build stone fortifications. New stone fortresses were built, for example, at
Codlea Codlea (; ; Transylvanian Saxon dialect: ''Zäöeden''; ) is a city in Brașov County, Transylvania, Romania. Name The Romanian name "Codlea" could be a derivation from the Latin , a diminutive of Latin (edge, rearward); or it could be a deriv ...
,
Rimetea Rimetea (until 1925 ''Trascău''; ; ) is a commune located in Alba County, Transylvania, Romania. It is composed of two villages, Colțești (formerly ''Sângeorzul Trascăului''; ''Torockószentgyörgy''; ''Sankt Georgen'') and Rimetea. A forme ...
, and
Unguraș Unguraș () is a commune in Cluj County, Transylvania, Romania. It is composed of five villages: Batin (''Bátony''), Daroț (''Daróc''), Sicfa (''Székfa''), Unguraș, and Valea Ungurașului (''Csabaújfalu''). Geography The commune lies on t ...
. The process of urbanization was characterized by the predominance of the Saxon towns: out of the eight towns in Transylvania, only Alba Iulia and Dej were situated in the counties. A charter referring to inns, bakeries, and bathhouses in Rodna proves the city-like way of life of its inhabitants. Salt was still the most important item of trade in this period, but trading with oxen, maidservants, and wine is also documented in royal charters. In 1257,
Béla IV of Hungary Béla IV (1206 – 3 May 1270) was King of Hungary and King of Croatia, Croatia between 1235 and 1270, and Duke of Styria from 1254 to 1258. As the oldest son of Andrew II of Hungary, King Andrew II, he was crowned upon the initiative of a group ...
(1235–1270) appointed his eldest son, the future
Stephen V Stephen V may refer to: *Pope Stephen IV, aka Stephen V, Pope from 816 to 817 *Pope Stephen V (885–891) *Stephen V of Hungary (born before 1239 – 1272), King of Hungary and Croatia, Duke of Styria *Stephen V Báthory (1430–1493), Hungarian co ...
(1270–1272) to govern the kingdom's territories to the east of the Danube. Here the younger king ceded a significant part of his royal domains to
noblemen Nobility is a social class found in many societies that have an aristocracy. It is normally appointed by and ranked immediately below royalty. Nobility has often been an estate of the realm with many exclusive functions and characteristics. Th ...
. The first years of the reign of
Ladislaus IV of Hungary Ladislaus IV (, , ; 5 August 1262 – 10 July 1290), also known as Ladislaus the Cuman, was King of Hungary and Croatia from 1272 to 1290. His mother, Elizabeth, was the daughter of a chieftain from the pagan Cumans who had settled in Hung ...
(1272–1290), were characterized by civil wars throughout the entire kingdom. In Transylvania, the Saxons engaged in a local conflict with the bishop, took Alba Iulia and set fire to the cathedral. The series of wars continued in 1285 with a second Mongol invasion. During its initial stage, the Székelys, the Romanians and the Saxons successfully blocked the Mongols' access and later organized a series of ambushes provoking panic among the retreating invaders. By that time, the Romanians' military role had expanded from their original task of defending the kingdom's frontiers. They participated in several military campaigns, for example against
Bohemia Bohemia ( ; ; ) is the westernmost and largest historical region of the Czech Republic. In a narrow, geographic sense, it roughly encompasses the territories of present-day Czechia that fall within the Elbe River's drainage basin, but historic ...
in 1260 and against
Austria Austria, formally the Republic of Austria, is a landlocked country in Central Europe, lying in the Eastern Alps. It is a federation of nine Federal states of Austria, states, of which the capital Vienna is the List of largest cities in Aust ...
in 1291. Their economic role became also recognized, since their pastoral activities connected to cloth production of the Saxon settlements. To the monarchs, they paid a special tax in sheep, called the "fiftieth".
Andrew III of Hungary Andrew III the Venetian (, , ; – 14 January 1301) was King of Hungary and King of Croatia, Croatia between 1290 and 1301. His father, Stephen the Posthumous, was the posthumous son of Andrew II of Hungary although Stephen's older half brother ...
(1290–1301) even ordered, in 1293, that all the Romanians who had been settled without royal permission on noble domains be returned to the royal estate of Armeni. In the last decades of the 13th century, ''congregatio generalis'' ("general assembly") convoked by the monarchs or their representatives became an important organ of
court system The judiciary (also known as the judicial system, judicature, judicial branch, judiciative branch, and court or judiciary system) is the system of courts that adjudicates legal disputes/disagreements and interprets, defends, and applies the law ...
. For instance, the general assembly convoked in 1279 by Ladislaus IV for seven counties – among them Bihor, Crasna, Sătmar, and Zărand in the territory what is now Romania – ended with sentencing a despotic person to death. The first charter referring to a general assembly of the Transylvanian counties was recorded in 1288. A general assembly of the Transylvanian nobles, Saxons, Székelys and Romanians was convoked personally by the monarch in 1291. When Andrew III died in 1301, the entire kingdom was in the hands of a dozen powerful noblemen. Among them,
Roland Borsa Roland Borsa (; ; 1250 - died 1301) was voivode of Transylvania for 3 periods in the late 13th century. He was known for battling the Mongol invasions and, later, for rebelling against King Charles I's attempts to control his territory. Origins ...
ruled Crișana,
Theodore Vejtehi Theodore Vejtehi (, ; died 1327), also Theodore Csanád, was an influential lord in the Kingdom of Hungary at the turn of the 13th and 14th centuries, who ruled the Banate of Severin () '' de facto'' independently of the central royal power. Fam ...
gained the upper hand in the Banat, and
Ladislaus Kán Ladislaus ( or according to the case) is a masculine given name of Slavic origin. It may refer to: * Ladislaus of Hungary (disambiguation) * Ladislaus I (disambiguation) * Ladislaus II (disambiguation) * Ladislaus III (disambiguation) * La ...
governed Transylvania.Vásáry 2005, p. 149. The latter's authority was also recognized by the Saxons and the Székelys. He even assumed royal prerogatives, such as taking over lands lacking rightful owners. After 1310, he acknowledged
Charles I of Hungary Charles I, also known as Charles Robert (; ; ; 128816 July 1342), was King of Hungary and Croatia in the union with Hungary, Croatia from 1308 to his death. He was a member of the Capetian House of Anjou and the only son of Charles Martel of A ...
(1301–1342) as his sovereign, but in fact continued to rule independently. The king who transferred his residence to
Timișoara Timișoara (, , ; , also or ; ; ; see #Etymology, other names) is the capital city of Timiș County, Banat, and the main economic, social and cultural center in Western Romania. Located on the Bega (Tisza), Bega River, Timișoara is consider ...
in 1315 could only strengthen his authority after a long series of confrontations. For instance,
Ciceu Ciceu ( , or colloquially ) is a commune in Romania, located in Harghita County. It lies in the Székely Land, an ethno-cultural region in eastern Transylvania. The commune is composed of two villages: *Ciaracio / Csaracsó *Ciceu / Csíkcsicsó ...
, the last stronghold of Ladislaus Kán's sons surrendered in 1321. After the king's victory, one of his loyal adherents,
Thomas Szécsényi Thomas (I) Szécsényi (; died 1354) was a Hungarian powerful baron and soldier, who rose to prominence during King Charles I's war against the oligarchs. He belonged to the so-called "new aristocracy", who supported the king's efforts to restor ...
was appointed ''voivode'' who suppressed a Saxon revolt in 1324. At that time, the autonomous Saxon province was divided into seats, each administered by a judge appointed by the king. In appreciation of the Transylvanian noblemen's services in the crushing of the revolt, Charles I exempted them from the taxes they had so far paid to the ''voivode''s. In this period, one of the major incentives for the growth of Transylvanian towns was the trade with Wallachia and Moldavia. For instance, Brașov was granted a
staple right The staple right, also translated stacking right or storage right, both from the Dutch , was a medieval right accorded to certain ports, the staple ports. It required merchant barges or ships to unload their goods at the port and to display them f ...
in 1369 with respect to the trade in cloth from Poland or Germany.Sedlar 1994, p. 356. Thereafter, foreign merchants had to sell their most sought-after merchandise,
broadcloth Broadcloth is a dense, Plain weave, plain woven textile, cloth, historically made of wool. The defining characteristic of broadcloth is not its finished width but the fact that it was woven much wider (typically 50 to 75% wider than its finish ...
to the tradesmen of Brașov who resold it in Wallachia in exchange for animals, cotton, wax and honey. In the 14th century, the name "
district A district is a type of administrative division that in some countries is managed by the local government. Across the world, areas known as "districts" vary greatly in size, spanning regions or county, counties, several municipality, municip ...
" was generalized for the forms of territorial organizations of the Romanians, but only few of them, for instance their district in
Bereg County Bereg (; ) was an administrative county ( comitatus) of the Kingdom of Hungary. Its territory is now mostly in western Ukraine and a smaller part in northeastern Hungary. The capital of the county was Beregszász ("Berehove" in Ukrainian, ''Bere ...
(now in Hungary and Ukraine), achieved official recognition.
Maramureș ( ; ; ; ) is a geographical, historical and cultural region in northern Romania and western Ukraine. It is situated in the northeastern Carpathians, along parts of the upper Tisza River drainage basin; it covers the Maramureș Depression and the ...
, where Romanians were first mentioned in 1326, was the only district that transformed, around 1380, into a county.
Louis I of Hungary Louis I, also Louis the Great (; ; ) or Louis the Hungarian (; 5 March 132610 September 1382), was King of Hungary and Croatia from 1342 and King of Poland from 1370. He was the first child of Charles I of Hungary and his wife, Elizabeth of ...
(1342–1382) issued a royal decree in 1366 which prescribed firm judicial measures against "the malefactors of any nation, especially Romanians". Louis I's decree also regulated the legal status of the '' knezes'', the Romanians' local leaders, by establishing a distinction between ''knezes'' "brought to" their lands by royal writ whose testimony in court weighed like that of nobles ("noble ''knezes''"), and others whose evidence counted for less ("commoner ''knezes''"). This distinction, however, did not mean real nobility and grant them exemption from royal taxes, even for the noble ''knezes''. Their status corresponded to that of the Hungarian "
conditional noble A conditional noble or predialistSegeš 2002, p. 286. (; ; ) was a landowner in the Kingdom of Hungary who was obliged to render specific services to his lord in return for his landholding, in contrast with a "Nobility in the Kingdom of Hungary, t ...
s" whose nobility depended on the specified military services they were to render. According to a royal decree of 1428, Louis I had also ordered that only Catholics be granted land in the
Sebeș Sebeș (; German: ''Mühlbach''; Hungarian: ''Szászsebes''; Transylvanian Saxon: ''Melnbach'') is a city in Alba County, central Romania, southwestern Transylvania. Geography The city lies in the Mureș River valley and straddles the river ...
district of
Timiș county Timiș () is a county (''județ'') of western Romania on the border with Hungary and Serbia, in the historical regions of Romania, historical region of Banat, with the county seat at Timișoara. It is the westernmost and the largest county in Ro ...
. As a result of official pressure, many Romanian noblemen converted to Catholicism.Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, p. 77. For example, the members of the powerful Drágffy family turned Catholic in the 15th century. The Ottomans raided Transylvania for the first time in 1394. Sigismund I of Hungary (1387–1437) organized a crusade against them, but the
battle of Nicopolis The Battle of Nicopolis took place on 25 September 1396 and resulted in the rout of an allied Crusader army (assisted by the Venetian navy) at the hands of an Ottoman force, raising the siege of the Danubian fortress of Nicopolis and le ...
(now
Nikopol, Bulgaria Nikopol ( ; historically , , ) is a town in northern Bulgaria, the administrative center of Nikopol Municipality, part of Pleven Province, on the right bank of the Danube river, downstream from the Danube’s confluence with the Osam river ...
) ended in disaster for the Christian forces in 1396.Treptow, Popa 1996, p. 148.


Establishment of Wallachia

According to a charter issued by Béla IV of Hungary for the
Knights Hospitallers The Order of Knights of the Hospital of Saint John of Jerusalem, commonly known as the Knights Hospitaller (), is a Catholic military order. It was founded in the crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem in the 12th century and had headquarters there u ...
in 1247, at that time at least four polities existed in the area to the south of the Carpathians. Two of them, the ''cnezat''s of
John John is a common English name and surname: * John (given name) * John (surname) John may also refer to: New Testament Works * Gospel of John, a title often shortened to John * First Epistle of John, often shortened to 1 John * Second E ...
and
Farcaș Farcaș, also Farkas, Farkaș or Farcas, was a '' cneaz'' (local chieftain or ruler) mentioned in the Diploma of the Joannites issued by king Béla IV of Hungary (1235–1270) on 2 July 1247; the diploma granted territories to the Knights Hospita ...
were granted to the knights, but the lands ruled by
Litovoi Litovoi, also Litvoy, was a Vlach/ Romanian ''voivode'' in the 13th century whose territory comprised northern Oltenia in today's Romania. He is mentioned for the first time in the Diploma of the Joannites issued by king Béla IV of Hungary (123 ...
and
Seneslau Seneslau, also Seneslav or Stănislau, was a Vlach ''voivode'' mentioned in the Diploma of the Joannites issued by king Béla IV of Hungary (1235–1270) on 2 July 1247. The diploma granted territories to the Knights Hospitaller in the Banate of ...
were left "to the ''Olati''" ("Romanians") "just as they have owned it". In the 1270s, Litovoi extended his territory and stopped paying tribute to the king, but his army was defeated by the royal forces, and he was killed in the battle.Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, p. 65. Romanian historical tradition associates the foundation of Wallachia with the "dismounting of Radu Negru" who crossed the Carpathians from Transylvania accompanied by "Romanians, papists, Saxons, and all kind of men" around 1290. The first sovereign of Wallachia recorded in contemporary sources was Basarab I who obtained international recognition for the independence of the principality by his victory over Charles I of Hungary in the battle of Posada on November 12, 1330. The princes of Wallachia were chosen from among his descendants – either legitimate, or not – by an assembly of the ''boyars'' until the 16th century.Sedlar 1994, p. 32. The ''boyars'', members of the landed nobility, formed the most important social group in the principality. The vast majority of the population was formed by peasants who were called several names, such as ''vecini'' ("neighbors") or ''rumâni'' ("Romanians"), in medieval documents. In this period, animals, especially sheep, remained the main item of export, but from the Wallachian Plain great quantities of grain were transported to the Mediterranean area. The basis of the peasants' diet was formed by millet eaten as porridge, while the ''boyars'' also used wheat. The Orthodox Metropolitan See of Wallachia was recognized by the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople in 1359. Wallachia issued its own currency under Vladislav I of Wallachia, Vladislav I (1364– 1377). The earliest written information about Romani people, Gypsies in modern Romania, a deed issued by Dan I of Wallachia (''c.'' 1383–1386) refers to Vladislav I's former donation of Gypsies to the Vodița monastery. Later on, all the important monasteries and ''boyars'' owned Slavery in Romania, Gipsy slaves. The Ottomans entered for the first time into Wallachia in 1395.Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, p. 99. Although the invading troops Battle of Rovine, were defeated somewhere in a ''rovină'' ("ragged marshland") in Oltenia, the chaos created by the threat of attacks allowed a group of ''boyars'' to put Vlad I of Wallachia, Vlad I the Usurper (1395–1397) on the throne. Thus Mircea I was forced to take refuge in Transylvania, where he agreed to be Sigismund I of Hungary's vassal. He was restored to the throne and participated in the disastrous crusade of Nicopolis organized by Sigismund I.


Establishment of Moldavia

After 1241 the territory between the Eastern Carpathians and the Dniester was controlled by the Golden Horde. Nevertheless, the contemporary Thomas Tuscus's reference to the Romanians' conflict with the Halych-Volhynia, Ruthenians in 1277 suggests that Romanian political entities existed in northern Moldavia at that time.Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, p. 69. In 1345 House of Lacković, Andrew Lackfi, the count of the Székelys led an army over the Carpathians and occupied this region where a border province was organized by Louis I of Hungary. Romanian historical tradition links the foundation of Moldavia to Foundation of Moldavia#'Dismounting' by Dragoș, the "dismounting of Dragoș", a Romanian ''voivode'' of the
Voivodeship of Maramureș The Voivodeship of Maramureș (, or ), was a Romanian voivodeship centered in the region of the same name within the Kingdom of Hungary. It was the most powerful and well-organized Romanian entity in the broader area of Transylvania during th ...
. Although Dragoș was succeeded by his son, Sas of Moldavia, Sas, his line did not last long. His descendants were soon expelled by Bogdan, a former ''voivode'' of Maramureș who fled to Moldavia and joined with local ''boyars'' in a revolt. In Moldavia, agriculture and animal raising remained the principal economic activities. Similarly to Wallachia, wooden plow remained the main agricultural tool throughout the Middle Ages. The constant clearing of land shows that finding new land was still preferred to crop rotation. The establishment of the principality enhanced the security of travel, thus Moldavia could also profit from the transit trade between Poland and the Black Sea ports. The first local coins were minted in 1377, under Peter I Mușat (''c.'' 1375–1391). The succession to the throne, similarly to Wallachia, was governed by the hereditary-elective principle.Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, p. 83. Thus either a legitimate or an illegitimate member of the Mușatin family could be proclaimed prince by an assembly of the ''boyars''. In 1387 Peter I Mușat recognized Władysław II Jagiełło of Poland as his suzerain, but Hungary also maintained its claim of suzerainty over the principality. Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, p. 70. Therefore, the princes of Moldavia could counterbalance the influence of Poland and Hungary by playing one off against the other.


Dobruja

After 1242 most of the territory between the Danube and the Black Sea was included in the area dominated by the Mongols. Although the Byzantine Empire reestablished control over the Danube Delta in the 1260s, it fell again under the direct rule of the Golden Horde sometime before 1337.Vásáry 2005, p. 161. By the end of the 13th century, flourishing communities of Republic of Genoa, Genoese merchants had settled in the towns of Vicina (town), Vicina, Chilia Veche, Chilia and Licostomo. Towards the middle of the 14th century a state dependent of the Byzantine Empire, known as "Principality of Karvuna, the country of Cavarna", developed in the region. Its first known ruler was Balica. He was succeeded by his brother, Dobrotitsa, for whom part of his holdings, Dobruja, received its name. In about 1385 Ivanco became the ruler of the territory, but he soon disappeared during an Ottoman expedition. Dobruja was occupied by Mircea I of Wallachia in 1390 and by the Ottomans in 1395.


Towards Ottoman domination (1397–1529)


Intra-Carpathian regions

In order to establish a zone of buffer states, Sigismund I of Hungary tried to draw the neighboring Orthodox rulers under his own suzerainty by granting them estates in his kingdom. For example, Stefan Lazarević of Serbia received Satu Mare, Baia Mare and Baia Sprie in modern Romania, and Mircea I of Wallachia was granted Făgăraș. Sigismund I was also the first monarch who recognized, in 1419, the legislative competence of the Estates of the realm, Estates in Transylvania. On his initiative, their assembly declared that in case of an Ottoman attack, every third nobleman and every tenth serf would take up arms. Indeed, from 1420 Ottoman attacks occurred on an annual basis. In this period many Saxon churches, and later the Székely churches of the Csík County, Ciuc region, were fortified, which Fortified churches in Transylvania, gave local architecture a distinctive appearance. The increasing defense costs fell primarily on the serfs: the rent on the land was raised and extraordinary taxes were imposed. The first peasant revolt in the territory of modern Romania broke out due to the efforts taken by the bishop of Transylvania to collect the church taxes.Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, p. 79. Led by Anton Budai Nagy, the rebellious peasants, who called themselves "the commune of the rightful Hungarian and Romanian inhabitants of this part of Transylvania", established a fortified camp on the Bobâlna hill early in 1437.Treptow, Popa 1996, p. 44. They fought two important battles against the noblemen; the first one, at Bobâlna, was won by the peasants, and the second one, near the Apatiu River, had no clear winner. The leaders of the noblemen, the Saxons and the Székelys, however, set up a "brotherly union" in order to join forces and crushed the peasants' resistance by the end of January 1438. The Ottomans' attempt to conquer new territories led to a better organized policy against them. The temporary union of the Eastern and Western Churches proclaimed by the Council of Florence in 1439 also created a favorable background for the concentration of Christian forces. Christendom found its champion in John Hunyadi who gained a series of victories over the Ottomans after 1441. For instance, in 1442 he routed an Ottoman army that had been devastating Transylvania. Through his last victory over Mehmed II at the Siege of Belgrade (1456), siege of Belgrade (in modern Serbia) in 1456, he saved the kingdom from Ottoman occupation for several decades. During the reign of his son, Matthias I of Hungary (1458–1490), the Ottomans launched only one serious attack against Transylvania in 1479 when they were defeated at Câmpul Pâinii. Matthias I used his officials to assert royal prerogatives that had already fallen into disuse. The noblemen found it particularly irksome that the ''lucrum camarae'', a tax from which they had been exempted was replaced with a new tax. In Transylvania, the "Three Nations" entered into a formal alliance against the king in 1467, but he quickly intervened and took the disorganized rebels by surprise. By that time, the land once held in common by the Székely community had gradually become divided into smaller and smaller units; thus a vast number of the free warrior-peasants had to enter the service of their more prosperous fellow Székelys. This social stratification was formally recognized by a royal decree in 1473. Thereafter those who performed mounted military service were differentiated from those who fought as foot-soldiers; those who were unable to finance themselves even as foot-soldiers were legally reduced to servitude. The prominence of the German element in the towns sometimes led to conflicts along ethnic lines.Sedlar 1994, p. 410. Thus the struggle for leadership in Cluj (now Cluj-Napoca) between Hungarians and Saxons only came to an end in 1458 by establishing a rule that municipal offices must be shared equally between the two groups. In 1486, Matthias I united all the Saxon districts in Transylvania in the "University of the Saxons" under the leadership of the elected mayor of Sibiu. After Matthias I's death, the assembly of the Estates, called Diet, began to function as a regular organ of power. The peasantry suffered most from the rule of the Estates, for instance, by the limitation of their right to free movement. In 1514 thousands of peasants who had been summoned to Buda (now Budapest, in modern Hungary) to join the crusade proclaimed by Pope Leo X against the Ottomans turned the weapons against their masters. The rebels, led by the Székely George Dózsa, occupied several towns, such as Oradea and Șoimoș, but on July 15 John Szapolyai, the ''voivode'' defeated them at
Timișoara Timișoara (, , ; , also or ; ; ; see #Etymology, other names) is the capital city of Timiș County, Banat, and the main economic, social and cultural center in Western Romania. Located on the Bega (Tisza), Bega River, Timișoara is consider ...
. As a retaliation, the Diet decreed that peasants were to be tied to the land "perpetually". The downfall of the Kingdom of Hungary was marked by the battle of Mohács (Hungary) where the royal army was annihilated by the Ottomans on August 29, 1526. Thereafter the noblemen's political factions engaged in conflict and elected two kings. One of them, John I Szapolyai (1526–1540) was supported by the lesser nobility, while Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor, Ferdinand I of Habsburg (1526–1564) was recognized mainly in the kingdom's western counties, but the Transylvanian Saxons also supported him. Seeking the assistance of the Ottomans, John I had to pay homage to the sultan at Mohács in 1529.


Wallachia

After the battle of Nicopolis, the Ottomans occupied Bulgaria and could attack Wallachia more easily. Mircea I the Old, however, could reoccupy Dobruja in 1402 by taking advantage of the Ottomans' difficulties after their defeat by Timur Lenk in the battle of Ankara. He even intervened in the Ottoman Interregnum, Ottoman civil war and supported the struggle of Musa and Mustafa against their brother, Mehmed I. After the two pretenders had been defeated, the Ottomans annexed again Dobruja and occupied Giurgiu, and Mircea I was forced to pay an annual tribute to the sultan. Under Mircea I iron mines were opened at Baia de Fier and copper mining began at Baia de Aramă. In addition, sulfur and amber were extracted in the region of Buzău. After Mircea I's death, princes succeeded one another on the throne with devastating frequency. For instance, Michael I of Wallachia, Michael I (1418–1420) was overthrown by his cousin, Dan II of Wallachia, Dan II (1420–1431), and in the next decade the throne was occupied with frequent changes either by Dan II or by his cousin, Radu II of Wallachia, Radu II the Bald (1421–1427), the former being supported by Sigismund I of Hungary and the latter by the Ottomans. Alexander I Aldea (1431–1436) was the first Romanian ruler to be forced to render military service to the Ottomans. Two decades later, Vlad III the Impaler (1448, 1456–1462, 1476), notorious as the model for the Count Dracula, Dracula legend, turned against the Ottoman Empire. He carried out a series of attacks across the Danube in the winter of 1461–1462. The response was a massive invasion led by Mehmed II who drove Vlad III from the throne and replaced him with his brother, Radu III the Fair (1462–1475). Due to the frequent military operations, the Wallachian Plain was heavily depopulated after the end of the 14th century. On the other hand, Wallachia received a steady flow of immigrants, mostly from the Balkans. After 1462 Wallachia preserved its autonomy mainly through the intervention of Stephen the Great of Moldavia. At the end of the century, however, Radu IV the Great (1495–1508) became an obedient subject of the sultan and visited Istanbul annually to personally offer the tribute. Even so, he could only stay in power by collaborating with the powerful Craiovești family, strongly connected to the Ottomans by trading. In 1512 a member of this family, Neagoe Basarab, Neagoe (1512–1521) rose to throne, but he adopted the dynastic name of Basarab in order to legitimize his rule.Treptow, Popa 1996, p. 147. He wrote the first original work of Romanian literature, titled ''Teachings'', to his son, Teodosius on moral, political, and military questions. Under Theodosius I (1521–1522) the Ottoman governor of Nicopolis take advantage of the internal fights among the ''boyar'' parties, and thus dominated the political life of Wallachia. Due to the imminent danger of annexation, the ''boyars'' grouped around Radu of Afumați, Radu V of Afumați (1522–1529) who fought about 20 battles against the Ottomans. Finally, he was, in 1525, forced to accept Ottoman suzerainty and the rise of the tribute.


Moldavia

The Orthodox Metropolitan See of Moldavia was recognized by the Ecumenical Patriarch during the reign of Alexander the Good, Alexander I the Good (1400–1432).Treptow, Popa 1996, p. 24. He reinforced Moldavia's traditional pro-Polish orientation and declared himself a vassal of Władysław II of Poland in 1406. Thenceforth, the Moldavian armies fought together with the Poles against the Teutonic Knights. The first Ottoman attack on Moldavia in 1420 was also repulsed by him.Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, p. 109. Alexander I's death was followed by a long period of political instability, characterized by frequent fights for the throne. For instance, the struggle of his sons, Iliaș of Moldavia, Iliaș I (1432–1442) and Stephen II of Moldavia, Stephen II (1433–1447) ended in 1435 by the division of the country.Treptow, Popa 1996, p. lii. Although cottage industries, both in ''boyar'' and peasant households, were still the main source of clothing, food and construction, specialized production, such as weaving and pottery, started to develop by the middle of the 15th century. The first oil wells went into production in 1440, but their oil was also only for household use. In Moldavia, Gypsy slaves were first mentioned in 1428 when Alexander I awarded 31 Gypsy families to the Bistrița Monastery. In time Gypsies became specialized in several crafts: for example, throughout the Middle Ages the working of iron was an occupation reserved almost exclusively for them. Peter III Aaron (1451–1457) was the first prince who agreed to pay tribute to the Ottomans in 1456. He was ousted by his nephew, Stephen, with the support of Vlad the Impaler of Wallachia.Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, p. 115. Stephen III the Great was to be the most important medieval Romanian monarch who managed to uphold Moldavia's autonomy against Hungary, Poland and the Ottoman Empire.Sedlar 1994, p. 396. In the early years of his reign, he remained allied with Poland and the Ottoman Empire, and even joined the Ottomans in attacking Wallachia. He also supported the rebellion of 1467 of the Transylvanian Estates; therefore Matthias I of Hungary launched an expedition against Moldavia, but the royal army was defeated in the battle of Baia. He came to view the Ottoman Empire as his chief enemy in the 1470s, and in 1474 he refused to pay tribute.Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, p. 116. He soon received the ultimatum of Mehmed II who demanded the surrender of Chilia, a fortress recently captured from Wallachia. Upon Stephen III's refusal, a large Ottoman army was sent against Moldavia. He called on Pope Sixtus IV, pleading for a crusade. Although the pope acknowledged his merits, by naming him "the Athlete of Christ", no anti-Ottoman coalition materialized. Even without external military support, Stephen the Great led his troops to victory in the battle of Vaslui on January 10, 1475. Following the battle, he addressed a letter to the Christian princes, expressing the idea that the two Romanian principalities were the "gateway to the Christian world", and if they fell "all Christendom would be in danger". He also recognized Matthias I of Hungary as his suzerain and received, in return, Ciceu and Cetatea de Baltă in Transylvania. The following year, however, he found himself alone when Mehmed II invaded Moldavia. The Moldavian army was defeated in the Battle of Valea Albă, but the Ottomans, suffering from a lack of provisions and an outbreak of the Plague (disease), plague, were forced to retreat. Stephen the Great suffered the greatest setback of his reign in 1484 when the Ottomans captured Chilia and Cetatea Alba (now Bilhorod-Dnistrovskyi, Ukraine) on the Black Sea. Having tried unsuccessfully to regain the fortresses in 1485, he concluded a peace with the sultan and agreed to pay tribute to him. He was succeeded by his son, Bogdan III the One-Eyed (1504–1517) whose reign was troubled by a long series of military conflicts with Poland and Wallachia. The good relations with Poland were reestablished under the reign of Stephen IV the Younger (1517–1527). His successor, Peter IV Rareș (1527–1538, 1541–1546) intervened in the struggle for the crown of the Kingdom of Hungary: on the order of the sultan, in 1529 he invaded the Székely Land and defeated the army of Ferdinand I's partisans.


Ottoman suzerainty (1530–1594)


Establishment of Principality of Transylvania

After 1529, resistance to John I in Transylvania was broken in a series of small campaigns. For instance, the last Transylvanian magnate to side with Ferdinánd I, Stephen Majláth went over to John I in early 1532, and Sibiu was occupied in 1536. On February 24, 1538, Treaty of Oradea, a secret pact was signed in Oradea by the representatives of the two kings of Hungary. According to the treaty, both rulers were allowed to retain the territories which they then held, but the childless John I promised to recognize the Habsburgs' succession. However, John I married a daughter of Sigismund I of Poland, Isabella Jagiellon, Isabella, who in 1540 bore him a son. Already dying, the king took an oath from his barons to evade the treaty of Oradea, and his counselor, George Martinuzzi, had the infant John II Sigismund Zápolya, John II Sigismund elected as king (1540–1571). Ferdinand I sent troops to take Buda, but they withdrew upon the advance of the Ottoman army. On August 29, 1541 Suleiman the Magnificent, Suleiman I summoned the Hungarian lords to his camp, and while the reception was taking place, Janissary, his troops occupied the capital of the kingdom. At the same time the sultan assigned the territories of the kingdom east of the Tisa to Queen Isabella and her son in return for an annual tribute. On October 18, the kingdom's eastern territories, including Transylvania, swore allegiance to the infant king at the Diet of Debrecen (Hungary). Thus a separate country started to emerge, although George Martinuzzi was still negotiating with Ferdinand I on the reunification of the kingdom. For this purpose, in 1551 Ferdinand I sent an army into Transylvania where he was recognized as sole ruler by the Diet. The Ottomans, however, occupied a great part of Banat in 1552, and neither could Ferdinand I consolidate his rule over the kingdom's eastern territories. Finally, the Diet, meeting in Sebeș on March 12, 1556, swore again allegiance to "the son of King John", thus the young king and his mother returned to Transylvania. The 16th century also brought about major religious changes: the Saxons converted to Lutheranism, while most of the Hungarians converted to Calvinism or Unitarianism; only the Székelys remained more than the other "nations" Catholic. In 1568, the Transylvanian Diet at Torda decreed the free worship of these four "received denominations", but Orthodoxy still continued to be only tolerated. The Romanians' status worsened in this period.Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, p. 134. The Diets of 1554 and 1555 decided that a Catholic or Protestant peasant could not be accused of a crime except there were seven Catholic or Protestant witnesses against him, while an Orthodox peasant could be accused if there were three Catholic or Protestant or seven Orthodox witnesses. The Diet of 1559 also decreed that Romanians who had settled on lands abandoned by Catholic serfs were obliged to pay the tithe. From the Székelys, continuing warfare demanded increased military service, and the royal administration imposed special taxes on them. Although the leaders of the Székely community were exempted from taxation in 1554, but all the foot soldiers continued to be taxed, resulting in a double burden of military and monetary obligations for them. In 1562 many Székelys took up arms against John II Sigismund, but they were defeated. The Saxon towns continued to develop even in the years of upheaval.Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, p. 128. Their population, however, increased slowly, mainly as a consequence of the Saxons' traditional desire for segregation: even Hungarian craftsmen and merchants were prohibited from settling in their towns. In the Treaty of Speyer of August 16, 1570, John II Sigismund acknowledged his rival, Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor, Maximilian I (1564–1576) as the lawful king of Hungary and adopted the title of "prince of Transylvania and parts of the Kingdom of Hungary". The treaty also marked out the borders of the new principality, which included not only the historical province of Transylvania, but also some neighboring counties, such as Bihor and Maramureș, thenceforward collectively known as Partium. The death of John II Sigismund in 1571 threatened to throw the country again into the hands of the Habsburgs whose officers supported the Unitarian Gáspár Bekes. Now the sultan appointed Stephen Báthory, a Catholic politician, ''voivode''. The decisive battle between the two candidates was won by Stephen Báthory at Sânpaul, Mureș, Sânpaul on July 8, 1575. In the same year, he was elected king of Poland, thus a personal union was formed between the two countries that lasted until his death in 1586. He left the administration of the principality first to his brother, Christopher Báthory (1575–1581), and then to his brother's minor son, Sigismund Báthory (1581–1602), bestowing on them the title of ''voivode'', while he himself took the title of prince. In February, 1594 Sigismund Báthory announced that his country would join the anti-Ottoman alliance formed by the Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor, Holy Roman Emperor, Rudolf II, Philip II of Spain and many smaller Italian and German states. Although the Estates twice refused to endorse the declaration of war, Transylvania joined the alliance on January 28, 1595 after the leaders of the opposition had been executed on the order of the monarch. In return Rudolph II recognized Sigismund's title of prince.


Wallachia

The short and unworthy reigns of Radu V's successors only increased the crisis of Wallachia. Starting with Mircea the Shepherd (1545–1559), the first prince placed on the throne by the sultan, the crown became negotiable, according to the largest tribute offered. Even Michael the Brave who in time would turn against the Ottomans ascended the throne with the support of some people who had influence with the Sublime Porte, among them Edward Barton (English diplomat), Sir Edward Barton, the English people, English ambassador to Istanbul.Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, p. 143. He soon embarked upon a program to strengthen the central authority by replacing the members of the ''sfatul domnesc'', an advisory body consisting of ''boyars'', with ''dregători'', that is officials personally loyal to him. Michael the Brave also adopted an anti-Ottoman policy, and upon his initiative Sigismund Báthory of Transylvania and Aaron the Tyrant of Moldavia (1591–1595) signed a treaty to form an anti-Ottoman alliance. The rebellion started by the massacre of all the Ottomans in Wallachia on November 13, 1594.


Moldavia

In 1531 Peter IV Rareș invaded Poland in order to reoccupy the Pokuttya, Pocuția region (in modern Ukraine), but his army was defeated. Now he concluded a secret treaty with Ferdinand I of Hungary, but soon had to seek refugee in Transylvania when Suleiman I led an army against him. This was the first occasion when a prince, Stephen V Lăcustă (1538–1540) was appointed by the sultan. At the same time, the sultan occupied Brăila and Tighina (now in Moldova), and the Budjak region (now in Ukraine). Peter IV Rareș recovered his throne in exchange for a large sum of money in 1541. His death was followed by a period characterized by fights between pretenders to the throne and among the ''boyar'' parties. The idea of anti-Ottoman struggle was revived by John III the Terrible (1572–1574) who refused to pay the tribute to the sultan.Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, p. 130. As a result, Ottoman and Wallachian troops invaded Moldavia, but they were defeated by John III in a surprise attack near Jiliște. Now the sultan sent a large army against Moldavia, and the prince was captured and quartered. Next Aaron the Tyrant joined the anti-Ottoman coalition of Transylvania and Wallachia, and started a rebellion on November 13, 1594, simultaneously with Michael the Brave of Wallachia. The 16th century was characterized by the flourishing of ecclesiastical mural painting whose technique have remained a secret until today. For example, the interior and exterior frescoes of the Voroneț Monastery represent this "Painted churches of northern Moldavia, Moldavian style".


Age of Michael the Brave (1595–1601)

Following their coordinated uprising, Michael the Brave attacked Ottoman strongholds along the Danube and recovered Giurgiu and Brăila, while Aaron the Tyrant seized Izmail, Ismail (now in Ukraine). In response, the sultan ordered the Grand Vizier, Sinan Pasha to invade Wallachia.Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, p. 144. The two princes needed the support of Sigismund Báthory who took advantage of the situation to make himself suzerain of Wallachia and Moldavia. When Aaron the Tyrant refused Sigismund Báthory's conditions, he was replaced by the latter's protégé, Ștefan Răzvan (1595) on the throne. According to the treaty signed by Michael the Brave on May 20, 1595 in Alba Iulia, Sigismund Báthory became the ruler of the three principalities and adopted the title of "prince of Transylvania, Moldavia and Transalpine Wallachia". The treaty stipulated, that the taxes would be established in Wallachia by the Transylvanian Diet, together with a council of 12 Wallachian ''boyars''. Around that time, the peasants were bound to the land both in Wallachia and Moldavia. Ottoman troops entered Wallachia in the summer, but they were defeated by Michael the Brave at Battle of Călugăreni, Călugăreni and by the united armies of the three principalities at Giurgiu. In the meantime, however, the Poles had invaded Moldavia and replaced Ștefan Răzvan by Ieremia Movilă (1595–1606). In June 1598 Michael the Brave recognized the suzerainty of Emperor Rudolph II, who had promised to grant subsidies to him to finance his mercenaries. On March 30, 1599 Sigismund Báthory abdicated the throne in favor of his cousin, Andrew Báthory (1599).Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, p. 147. The new prince was loyal to the Poles and promptly demanded that Michael the Brave accept his suzerainty. The latter secured the emperor's approval for an invasion of Transylvania and attacked the principality where the Székelys also joined him. He Battle of Șelimbăr, defeated his opponent at Șelimbăr on October 28, 1599 and entered Alba Iulia. Here the Diet recognized him as imperial governor. He respected the traditional organization of Transylvania, and even crushed a revolt of the Romanian peasants, but forced the Diet to relieve the Orthodox priests of feudal obligations. In the spring of 1600, he invaded Moldavia in the name of the emperor and established control over it. In July he even proclaimed himself "prince of Wallachia, Transylvania, and all of Moldavia" in Iași, thus bringing about the union of the three principalities. However, the Hungarian noblemen, dissatisfied with the disorder, rebelled against his rule, and Battle of Mirăslău, defeated him at Mirăslău on September 18, 1600. At the same time, the Poles invaded Moldavia and restored Ieremia Movilă to the throne; then they entered Wallachia, where Simion Movilă defeated Michael the Brave at Buzău. In this moment of crisis, Michael the Brave left for Prague to appeal to the emperor for support.Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, p. 151. He returned to Transylvania in July 1601 at the head of an imperial army. Cooperating with the imperial general, Giorgio Basta, he Battle of Guruslău, defeated the Transylvanian troops at Guruslău on August 3, but on August 19 he was assassinated on the order of his former ally, Giorgio Basta.


After the first union

After Michael the Brave's death, Transylvania was ruled by an imperial military commission, but under Stephen Bocskay (1604–1606) the principality voluntarily accepted Ottoman suzerainty. In the next decades, the princes of Transylvania, among them Gabriel Bethlen (1613–1629), made several unsuccessful attempts to unify Transylvania, Wallachia and Moldavia.Klepper 2002, pp. 84–85. Wallachia and Moldavia fell back under the control of the Ottoman Empire after Michael the Brave's death.Klepper 2002, p. 89. Radu Mihnea, prince of Wallachia (1611–1616, 1623–1626) and of Moldavia (1616–1623), was the first ruler to appoint Greeks from the Phanar district of Istanbul to high government posts. This started a trend that ultimately led to the so-called "Phanariotes, Phanariot period" in Romania's history.


See also

*Banat in the Middle Ages *List of rulers of Wallachia, List of Wallachian rulers (up to 1859) *List of rulers of Moldavia, List of Moldavian rulers (up to 1859) *List of rulers of Transylvania, List of Transylvanian rulers (up to 1918)


Footnotes


References

* * * * * * * * *Klepper, Nicolae (2002). ''Romania: An Illustrated History''. Hippocrene Books. . * * * * * * *Sedlar, Jean W. (1994). ''East Central Europe in the Middle Ages, 1000–1500''. University of Washington Press. . *Spinei, Victor (2009). ''The Romanians and the Turkic Nomads North of the Danube Delta from the Tenth to the Mid-Thirteenth Century''. Brill. 978-90-04-17536-5. *Treptow, Kurt W.; Popa, Marcel (1996). ''Historical Dictionary of Romania''. Scarecrow Press. . *Treptow, Kurt W.; Bolovan, Ioan; Constantiniu, Florin; Michelson, Paul E.; Pop, Ioan Aurel; Popa, Cristian; Popa, Marcel; Scurtu, Ioan; Vultur, Marcela; Watts, Larry L. (1997). ''A History of Romania''. The Center for Romanian Studies. . *Vásáry, István (2005). ''Cumans and Tatars: Oriental Military in the Pre-Ottoman Balkans, 1185–1365''. Cambridge University Press. .


Further reading

*Castellan, Georges (1989). ''A History of the Romanians.'' The University of Michigan Press. . *Durandin, Catherine (1995). ''Historie des Roumains'' (The History of the Romanians). Librairie Artheme Fayard. .


External links

*Köpeczi, Béla; Makkai, László; Mócsy, András; Szász, Zoltán; Barta, Gábor
"History of Transylvania"
*Nicolae, Adrian
"Cum au uitat românii un mileniu de istorie I"
*Nicolae, Adrian
"Cum au uitat românii un mileniu de istorie II"
*Samuelson, James (1882)



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