Masyaf ( ') is a
city
A city is a human settlement of a substantial size. The term "city" has different meanings around the world and in some places the settlement can be very small. Even where the term is limited to larger settlements, there is no universally agree ...
in northwestern
Syria
Syria, officially the Syrian Arab Republic, is a country in West Asia located in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Levant. It borders the Mediterranean Sea to the west, Turkey to Syria–Turkey border, the north, Iraq to Iraq–Syria border, t ...
. It is the center of the
Masyaf District
Masyaf District ( ') is a district (mantiqah) administratively belonging to Hama Governorate, Syria. At the 2004 Census it had a population of 169,341. Its capital city, administrative centre is the city of Masyaf.
Sub-districts
The district of ...
in the
Hama Governorate
Hama Governorate ( / ALA-LC: ''Muḥāfaẓat Ḥamā'') is one of the 14 Governorates of Syria, governorates of Syria. It is situated in western-central Syria, bordering Idlib Governorate, Idlib and Aleppo Governorates to the north, Raqqa Gove ...
. As of 2004, Masyaf had a religiously diverse population of approximately 22,000
Ismailis
Ismailism () is a branch of Shia Islam. The Isma'ili () get their name from their acceptance of Imam Isma'il ibn Jafar as the appointed spiritual successor ( imām) to Ja'far al-Sadiq, wherein they differ from the Twelver Shia, who accept M ...
,
Alawites
Alawites () are an Arab ethnoreligious group who live primarily in the Levant region in West Asia and follow Alawism, a sect of Islam that splintered from early Shia as a ''ghulat'' branch during the ninth century. Alawites venerate Ali ...
and Christians. The city is well known for its large
medieval castle, particularly its role as the headquarters of the
Nizari Ismailis and their elite
Assassins
An assassin is a person who commits targeted murder.
The origin of the term is the medieval Order of Assassins, a sect of Shia Islam 1090–1275 CE.
Assassin, or variants, may also refer to:
Fictional characters
* Assassin, in the Japanese adult ...
unit.
Etymology
Throughout the Islamic era and until the modern day, the Arabic name of the city was pronounced in a number of different ways by the inhabitants of the region as ''Maṣyaf'', ''Maṣyat'' or ''Maṣyad''. The Arabic name is a local pronunciation that evolved from the
Assyrian name ''Manṣuate''. The "nṣw" in ''Manṣuate'' correlates with the Arabic "nṣṣ", which means "to set up", according to
orientalist scholar
Edward Lipinsky. Moreover, Lipinsky suggests that the Assyrian name was likely a configuration of the Assyrian word ''manṣuwatu'' which correlates with the Arabic word ''minaṣṣatu(n)'', both of which translate as "raised platform". This translation is indicative of the
promontory
A promontory is a raised mass of land that projects into a lowland or a body of water (in which case it is a peninsula). Most promontories either are formed from a hard ridge of rock that has resisted the erosive forces that have removed the s ...
that the Masyaf fortress occupies which overlooks the rest of the city and the surrounding area.
History
Early history
Masyaf is the most probable site of the ancient
Aramean
The Arameans, or Aramaeans (; ; , ), were a tribal Semitic people in the ancient Near East, first documented in historical sources from the late 12th century BCE. Their homeland, often referred to as the land of Aram, originally covered ce ...
city of Mansuate that existed in the 8th century BC. It later served as the administrative center of an
Assyrian province by the same name in modern-day central Syria. Masyaf is also likely the site of Marsyas.
Roman
Roman or Romans most often refers to:
*Rome, the capital city of Italy
*Ancient Rome, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD
*Roman people, the people of Roman civilization
*Epistle to the Romans, shortened to Romans, a letter w ...
and
Byzantine
The Byzantine Empire, also known as the Eastern Roman Empire, was the continuation of the Roman Empire centred on Constantinople during late antiquity and the Middle Ages. Having survived the events that caused the fall of the Western Roman E ...
historians mentioned a city named "Marsyas" that governed the
al-Ghab and
Beqaa plains to the north and south of the site, respectively.
Masyaf and its
fortress
A fortification (also called a fort, fortress, fastness, or stronghold) is a military construction designed for the defense of territories in warfare, and is used to establish rule in a region during peacetime. The term is derived from L ...
were first mentioned by
Crusader chroniclers in 1099.
[Daftary, 2011, p. 115.] However, because a fortification at Masyaf likely existed prior to the 11th century, it is probable that the
Aleppo
Aleppo is a city in Syria, which serves as the capital of the Aleppo Governorate, the most populous Governorates of Syria, governorate of Syria. With an estimated population of 2,098,000 residents it is Syria's largest city by urban area, and ...
-based
Hamdanid dynasty
The Hamdanid dynasty () was a Shia Muslim Arab dynasty that ruled modern day Northern Mesopotamia and Syria (890–1004). They descended from the ancient Banu Taghlib tribe of Mesopotamia and Arabia.
History Origin
The Hamdanids hailed ...
built a fort at Masyaf, due to its position as an outpost overlooking the mountain roads. At that time, the fortress was a part of
Jund Qinnasrin
''Jund Qinnasrīn'' (, "jund, military district of Qinnasrin") was one of five sub-provinces of Bilad al-Sham, Syria under the Umayyad and Abbasid Caliphate, Abbasid Caliphates, organized soon after the Muslim conquest of Syria in the 7th century ...
(Chalcis Province) of the
Fatimid Caliphate
The Fatimid Caliphate (; ), also known as the Fatimid Empire, was a caliphate extant from the tenth to the twelfth centuries CE under the rule of the Fatimids, an Isma'ili Shi'a dynasty. Spanning a large area of North Africa and West Asia, i ...
. In the autumn of 999,
Basil II
Basil II Porphyrogenitus (; 958 – 15 December 1025), nicknamed the Bulgar Slayer (, ), was the senior Byzantine emperor from 976 to 1025. He and his brother Constantine VIII were crowned before their father Romanos II died in 963, but t ...
, the
Byzantine
The Byzantine Empire, also known as the Eastern Roman Empire, was the continuation of the Roman Empire centred on Constantinople during late antiquity and the Middle Ages. Having survived the events that caused the fall of the Western Roman E ...
emperor, destroyed the fortifications at Masyaf as part of his campaign to gain control of
Antioch
Antioch on the Orontes (; , ) "Antioch on Daphne"; or "Antioch the Great"; ; ; ; ; ; ; . was a Hellenistic Greek city founded by Seleucus I Nicator in 300 BC. One of the most important Greek cities of the Hellenistic period, it served as ...
and its environs from the Muslims.
The area would later come under
Seljuk Seljuk (, ''Selcuk'') or Saljuq (, ''Saljūq'') may refer to:
* Seljuk Empire (1051–1153), a medieval empire in the Middle East and central Asia
* Seljuk dynasty (c. 950–1307), the ruling dynasty of the Seljuk Empire and subsequent polities
* S ...
rule, but in 1099, the Crusaders attempted to wrest control of Masyaf (and the more strategically important
Rafania) following their capture of
Tripoli. The Seljuk
atabeg of Damascus,
Toghtekin
Zahir al-Din Toghtekin or Tughtekin (Modern ; Arabicised epithet: ''Zahir ad-Din Tughtikin''; died February 12, 1128), also spelled Tughtegin, was a Turkoman military leader, who was ''emir'' of Damascus from 1104 to 1128. He was the founder ...
, launched a military campaign to prevent the loss of the area and reached a short-lived accommodation with the Crusaders whereby Masyaf and
Hisn al-Akrad would remain in Muslim hands, but have to pay tribute to the Crusaders. Sometime later, Masyaf was controlled by the
Mirdasid dynasty
The Mirdasid dynasty (), also called the Banu Mirdas, was an Arab Shia Muslim dynasty which ruled an Aleppo-based emirate in northern Syria and the western Jazira (Upper Mesopotamia) more or less continuously from 1024 until 1080.
History Do ...
. In 1127, the Mirdasids sold it to the
Shaizar
Shaizar or Shayzar (; in modern Arabic Saijar; Hellenistic name: Larissa in Syria, Λάρισσα εν Συρία in Greek language, Greek) is a town in northern Syria, administratively part of the Hama Governorate, located northwest of Hama. Near ...
-based
Banu Munqidh
The Banu Munqidh (), also referred to as the Munqidhites, were an Arab family that ruled an emirate in the Orontes Valley in northern Syria from the mid-11th century until the family's demise in an earthquake in 1157. The emirate was initiall ...
family.
Nizari Ismaili era
In 1140, Masyaf was captured by the
Nizari Ismailis, a sect of
Ismaili
Ismailism () is a branch of Shia Islam. The Isma'ili () get their name from their acceptance of Imam Isma'il ibn Jafar as the appointed spiritual successor ( imām) to Ja'far al-Sadiq, wherein they differ from the Twelver Shia, who accept ...
branch of
Shia
Shia Islam is the second-largest branch of Islam. It holds that Muhammad designated Ali ibn Abi Talib () as both his political successor (caliph) and as the spiritual leader of the Muslim community (imam). However, his right is understood ...
. The fortress was being defended by a Banu Munqidh ''
mamluk
Mamluk or Mamaluk (; (singular), , ''mamālīk'' (plural); translated as "one who is owned", meaning "slave") were non-Arab, ethnically diverse (mostly Turkic, Caucasian, Eastern and Southeastern European) enslaved mercenaries, slave-so ...
'' (slave warrior) named Sunqur, who the Ismaili force managed to ambush and kill. The Ismailis had chosen
Syria
Syria, officially the Syrian Arab Republic, is a country in West Asia located in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Levant. It borders the Mediterranean Sea to the west, Turkey to Syria–Turkey border, the north, Iraq to Iraq–Syria border, t ...
as their new home and successively settled in the cities of
Aleppo
Aleppo is a city in Syria, which serves as the capital of the Aleppo Governorate, the most populous Governorates of Syria, governorate of Syria. With an estimated population of 2,098,000 residents it is Syria's largest city by urban area, and ...
and
Damascus
Damascus ( , ; ) is the capital and List of largest cities in the Levant region by population, largest city of Syria. It is the oldest capital in the world and, according to some, the fourth Holiest sites in Islam, holiest city in Islam. Kno ...
and the fortress of
Banias
Banias (; ; Judeo-Aramaic, Medieval Hebrew: , etc.; ), also spelled Banyas, is a site in the Golan Heights near a natural spring, once associated with the Greek god Pan. It had been inhabited for 2,000 years, until its Syrian population fle ...
, each time being persecuted and massacred by the authorities or mobs of local residents incited by clerics who accused the Ismailis of being
heretic
Heresy is any belief or theory that is strongly at variance with established beliefs or customs, particularly the accepted beliefs or religious law of a religious organization. A heretic is a proponent of heresy.
Heresy in Christianity, Judai ...
s or causing problems. Consequently, the surviving Ismaili leadership decided that establishing bases in Syria's cities and thus relying on the goodwill of various ''umara'' (princes) was untenable. Instead, they chose to settle in
Jabal Ansariyah, a coastal mountain range dotted with fortresses, including Masyaf.

Following its capture, Masyaf served as the principal fortress for the Ismailis' chief ''
da'i
A da'i (, ) is generally someone who engages in Dawah, the act of inviting people to Islam.
See also
* Dawah
* Da'i al-Mutlaq, 'the absolute (unrestricted) missionary'
* Hujja
* List of converts to Islam
The following is a list of notabl ...
''. Together with other fortresses acquired at around the same time, including
al-Kahf
Al-Kahf () is the 18th chapter (sūrah) of the Qur'an with 110 verses ( āyāt). Regarding the timing and contextual background of the revelation ('' asbāb al-nuzūl''), it is an earlier Meccan surah, which means it was revealed before Muh ...
,
Khawabi,
al-Qadmus
Al-Qadmus (, also spelled al-Qadmous or Cadmus) is a town in northwestern Syria, administratively part of the Tartus Governorate, located northeast of Tartus and southeast of Baniyas. Nearby localities include Kaff al-Jaa and Masyaf to the east, ...
and
al-Rusafa, the Ismailis were able to carve an autonomous territory for themselves amid hostile Crusader states and local Muslim dynasties nominally affiliated with the
Abbasid Caliphate
The Abbasid Caliphate or Abbasid Empire (; ) was the third caliphate to succeed the Islamic prophet Muhammad. It was founded by a dynasty descended from Muhammad's uncle, Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib (566–653 CE), from whom the dynasty takes ...
. Masyaf served as the headquarters of the Ismaili ''da'i''
Rashid ad-Din Sinan
Rashid al-Din Sinan ( ; 1131/1135 – 1193) also known as the Old Man of the Mountain ( ; ), was an Arab Muslim missionary () who served as the leader of the Nizari Ismaili state and the Order of Assassins from 1162 until his death in 1193. ...
and his elite unit of ''
fida'i
"" () is the national anthem of Palestine.
Etymology
The word (; plural: or , often rendered in English as ''fedayeen'') means "sacrifice" or "one who sacrifices himself" (a literal translation of might be "martyrdom in Palestinian cult ...
'' who were known as the
Assassins
An assassin is a person who commits targeted murder.
The origin of the term is the medieval Order of Assassins, a sect of Shia Islam 1090–1275 CE.
Assassin, or variants, may also refer to:
Fictional characters
* Assassin, in the Japanese adult ...
.
In the mid-1170s, the
Ayyubid
The Ayyubid dynasty (), also known as the Ayyubid Sultanate, was the founding dynasty of the medieval Sultan of Egypt, Sultanate of Egypt established by Saladin in 1171, following his abolition of the Fatimid Caliphate, Fatimid Caliphate of Egyp ...
sultan
Saladin
Salah ad-Din Yusuf ibn Ayyub ( – 4 March 1193), commonly known as Saladin, was the founder of the Ayyubid dynasty. Hailing from a Kurdish family, he was the first sultan of both Egypt and Syria. An important figure of the Third Crusade, h ...
set about conquering Syria, ousting the Crusaders and uniting the Muslim world under Sunni Islam. The Ismailis considered Saladin a more dangerous threat than the Crusaders and allied with Saladin's rival in Aleppo to defeat the Ayyubids. Sinan's men launched two unsuccessful attempts to assassinate Saladin and in 1176, Saladin launched a punitive expedition against the Assassins in the strongly-defended fortress of Masyaf. Within a few days of the siege, Saladin withdrew due to an urgent need to redeploy against the Crusaders who were attacking Ayyubid territory in the
Beqaa. He arranged a truce with Sinan mediated by the Ayyubid emir of
Hama
Hama ( ', ) is a city on the banks of the Orontes River in west-central Syria. It is located north of Damascus and north of Homs. It is the provincial capital of the Hama Governorate. With a population of 996,000 (2023 census), Hama is one o ...
, Shihab al-Din Mahmud al-Harimi, Saladin's uncle.
Mamluk rule
A wall around the town of Masyaf was built in 1249 by the
Persian
Persian may refer to:
* People and things from Iran, historically called ''Persia'' in the English language
** Persians, the majority ethnic group in Iran, not to be conflated with the Iranic peoples
** Persian language, an Iranian language of the ...
leader of the Ismailis, Taj al-Din Abu'l Futuh. In 1260, the
Mongol
Mongols are an East Asian ethnic group native to Mongolia, China (Inner Mongolia and other 11 autonomous territories), as well as the republics of Buryatia and Kalmykia in Russia. The Mongols are the principal member of the large family of M ...
s under
Hulagu
Hulegu Khan, also known as Hülegü or Hulagu; ; ; ; ( 8 February 1265), was a Mongol ruler who conquered much of Western Asia. As a son of Tolui and the Keraite princess Sorghaghtani Beki, he was a grandson of Genghis Khan and brother of Ar ...
conquered most of northern Syria and briefly occupied Masyaf. However, following the Mongols' rout at the
Battle of Ain Jalut
The Battle of Ain Jalut (), also spelled Ayn Jalut, was fought between the Bahri Mamluks of Egypt and the Ilkhanate on 3 September 1260 (25 Ramadan 658 AH) near the spring of Ain Jalut in southeastern Galilee in the Jezreel Valley. It marks ...
at the hand of the
Bahri Mamluks
The Bahri Mamluks (), sometimes referred to as the Bahri dynasty, were the rulers of the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt from 1250 to 1382, following the Ayyubid dynasty. The members of the Mamluk ruling class were purchased as slaves ( mamluks) and ma ...
later that year, they withdrew from Masyaf and it once again fell under
Ismaili
Ismailism () is a branch of Shia Islam. The Isma'ili () get their name from their acceptance of Imam Isma'il ibn Jafar as the appointed spiritual successor ( imām) to Ja'far al-Sadiq, wherein they differ from the Twelver Shia, who accept ...
control.
In 1262, Masyaf's rulers were ordered to pay tribute to the Mamluk sultan
Baibars
Al-Malik al-Zahir Rukn al-Din Baybars al-Bunduqdari (; 1223/1228 – 1 July 1277), commonly known as Baibars or Baybars () and nicknamed Abu al-Futuh (, ), was the fourth Mamluk sultan of Egypt and Syria, of Turkic Kipchak origin, in the Ba ...
and some time after, the sultan had Masyaf's ''emir'' Najm al-Din Ismail replaced by Sarim al-Din Mubarak. Mubarak was later imprisoned in
Cairo
Cairo ( ; , ) is the Capital city, capital and largest city of Egypt and the Cairo Governorate, being home to more than 10 million people. It is also part of the List of urban agglomerations in Africa, largest urban agglomeration in Africa, L ...
by Baibars and Najm ad-Din was briefly restored as ''emir'' before Masyaf was fully incorporated into the
sultanate
Sultan (; ', ) is a Royal and noble ranks, position with several historical meanings. Originally, it was an Arabic abstract noun meaning "strength", "authority", "rulership", derived from the verbal noun ', meaning "authority" or "power". La ...
in 1270. Ismailis continued inhabiting it throughout Mamluk rule.
Towards the end of the century, Masyaf became a major stopping point on the Mamluk postal route and was controlled by a commander who answered directly to the sultan due to its strategic role as a frontier fortress.
In 1320, the historian and Ayyubid emir of Hama,
Abu'l Fida, noted that Masyaf was a "center of the Ismailian Doctrine" and that it was "beautiful" with gardens and a spring from which flowed a small stream. According to
Ibn Battuta
Ibn Battuta (; 24 February 13041368/1369), was a Maghrebi traveller, explorer and scholar. Over a period of 30 years from 1325 to 1354, he visited much of Africa, the Middle East, Asia and the Iberian Peninsula. Near the end of his life, Ibn ...
, who passed by the town in 1355, Masyaf was the center of a district belonging to the province of
Tripoli and containing the fortress villages of al-Rusafa,
al-Kahf
Al-Kahf () is the 18th chapter (sūrah) of the Qur'an with 110 verses ( āyāt). Regarding the timing and contextual background of the revelation ('' asbāb al-nuzūl''), it is an earlier Meccan surah, which means it was revealed before Muh ...
,
al-Qadmus
Al-Qadmus (, also spelled al-Qadmous or Cadmus) is a town in northwestern Syria, administratively part of the Tartus Governorate, located northeast of Tartus and southeast of Baniyas. Nearby localities include Kaff al-Jaa and Masyaf to the east, ...
,
al-Ulayqa and
al-Maniqa. Masyaf was later separated from Tripoli and transferred to the authority of Damascus province. In the mid-15th century, under Sultan
Barsbay
Al-Ashraf Sayf ad-Dīn Barsbāy () was the ninth Burji dynasty, Burji Mamluk sultan of Egypt from AD 1422 to 1438. He was Circassians, Circassian by birth and a former slave of the first Burji Sultan, Barquq.
Early career
A former slave of the i ...
, a road was built that connected Masyaf with Tripoli, but the postal route no longer passed through the town. In 1446, the historian Khalil al-Zahiri described Masyaf as "a pleasant town, with an extensive countryside".
Ottoman era

Masyaf, along with the rest of Syria, was incorporated into the
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire (), also called the Turkish Empire, was an empire, imperial realm that controlled much of Southeast Europe, West Asia, and North Africa from the 14th to early 20th centuries; it also controlled parts of southeastern Centr ...
in 1516–17 following the Ottoman victory over the Mamluks at the
Battle of Marj Dabiq. Masyaf became a part of the ''
liwa'' (district) of
Homs
Homs ( ; ), known in pre-Islamic times as Emesa ( ; ), is a city in western Syria and the capital of the Homs Governorate. It is Metres above sea level, above sea level and is located north of Damascus. Located on the Orontes River, Homs is ...
, and along with the other Ismaili fortresses in its vicinity (''qala' al-da'wa''), was responsible for paying a special tax. The town had a ''khan'' (
caravanserai
A caravanserai (or caravansary; ) was an inn that provided lodging for travelers, merchants, and Caravan (travellers), caravans. They were present throughout much of the Islamic world. Depending on the region and period, they were called by a ...
) which paid tolls to the Ottoman authorities. The tolls were abolished later in the mid-16th century. According to the
Sufi
Sufism ( or ) is a mysticism, mystic body of religious practice found within Islam which is characterized by a focus on Islamic Tazkiyah, purification, spirituality, ritualism, and Asceticism#Islam, asceticism.
Practitioners of Sufism are r ...
traveler
Abd al-Ghani al-Nabulsi
Shaykh 'Abd al-Ghani ibn Isma′il al-Nabulsi (an-Nabalusi) (19 March 1641 – 5 March 1731), was an eminent Sunni Ulama, Muslim scholar, poet, and author on works about Sufism, ethnography and agriculture.
Family origins
Abd al-Ghani's family ...
, the ''emir'' of Masyaf in the early 1690s was a descendant of the Arab
Tanukh tribe named Sulayman.
In 1703, the Raslan clan, an
Alawite
Alawites () are an Arabs, Arab ethnoreligious group who live primarily in the Levant region in West Asia and follow Alawism, a sect of Islam that splintered from early Shia as a ''ghulat'' branch during the ninth century. Alawites venerate A ...
tribe, took over Masyaf and controlled it for about eight years until it was restored to the
Ismailis
Ismailism () is a branch of Shia Islam. The Isma'ili () get their name from their acceptance of Imam Isma'il ibn Jafar as the appointed spiritual successor ( imām) to Ja'far al-Sadiq, wherein they differ from the Twelver Shia, who accept M ...
following the intervention of the
Ottoman authorities. During this period, the majority of Masyaf's Ismaili inhabitants followed the
Nizari
Nizari Isma'ilism () are the largest segment of the Isma'ilism, Ismailis, who are the second-largest branch of Shia Islam after the Twelvers. Nizari teachings emphasise independent reasoning or ''ijtihad''; Pluralism (philosophy), pluralism— ...
sect although there was a small
Tayyibi minority too. In 1788, the ''emir'' of Masyaf, Mustafa ibn Idris, built a ''sabil'' (
ablutions fountain) and a house that would be used by himself and successive Ismaili ''emirs''.
In 1808, the Raslan clan led by Sheikh Mahmud Raslan attacked Masyaf, killing its Ismaili chief, Mustafa Milhim,
[Daftary, 2007, p. 489.] and his son, and captured the fortress.
About 300 of the town's Ismaili inhabitants were also killed, while many others, including the ''da'i'' (religious chief) of Masyaf, fled for
Homs
Homs ( ; ), known in pre-Islamic times as Emesa ( ; ), is a city in western Syria and the capital of the Homs Governorate. It is Metres above sea level, above sea level and is located north of Damascus. Located on the Orontes River, Homs is ...
,
Hama
Hama ( ', ) is a city on the banks of the Orontes River in west-central Syria. It is located north of Damascus and north of Homs. It is the provincial capital of the Hama Governorate. With a population of 996,000 (2023 census), Hama is one o ...
and other areas in central Syria, settling in those places temporarily.
The
Ismailis
Ismailism () is a branch of Shia Islam. The Isma'ili () get their name from their acceptance of Imam Isma'il ibn Jafar as the appointed spiritual successor ( imām) to Ja'far al-Sadiq, wherein they differ from the Twelver Shia, who accept M ...
had already been in the process of being gradually expelled from Jabal Ansariyah by
Alawite
Alawites () are an Arabs, Arab ethnoreligious group who live primarily in the Levant region in West Asia and follow Alawism, a sect of Islam that splintered from early Shia as a ''ghulat'' branch during the ninth century. Alawites venerate A ...
clans.
[Balanche, 2004, pp. 69–70.] The Ottoman
governor of Damascus,
Kunj Yusuf Pasha, intervened in the matter, dispatching a force of 4,000–5,000 soldiers to recapture the town. After three months of fighting, the Raslans surrendered Masyaf. Ismaili control over the town and its fortress was restored in 1810.
Two years after the resettlement of Masyaf by the Ismailis,
Johann Ludwig Burckhardt
Johann Ludwig (also known as John Lewis, Jean Louis) Burckhardt (24 November 1784 – 15 October 1817) was a Swiss traveller, geographer and Orientalist. Burckhardt assumed the alias ''Sheikh Ibrahim Ibn Abdallah'' during his travels in Arabia ...
recorded an estimated population of 280 families, most of which were Ismaili and 30 were
Christian
A Christian () is a person who follows or adheres to Christianity, a Monotheism, monotheistic Abrahamic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus in Christianity, Jesus Christ. Christians form the largest religious community in the wo ...
. Burchardt noted that the town's
citadel
A citadel is the most fortified area of a town or city. It may be a castle, fortress, or fortified center. The term is a diminutive of ''city'', meaning "little city", because it is a smaller part of the city of which it is the defensive core.
...
, many houses, the mosque and most other buildings were either heavily damaged or destroyed from previous fighting. Throughout the remainder of the 19th century, Masyaf's population continued to decrease.
Modern era

The
Allied Powers captured Syria from the Ottomans in 1917, after which the residents largely abandoned the fortress of Masyaf. British general
T. E. Lawrence rested in Masyaf and remarked that the fortress was being used as a
poorhouse
A poorhouse or workhouse is a government-run (usually by a county or municipality) facility to support and provide housing for the dependent or needy.
Workhouses
In England, Wales and Ireland (but not in Scotland), "workhouse" has been the more ...
at the time. During the
French Mandate over Syria, the French separated the Jabal Ansariyah range from the rest of Syria to form the
Alawite State. Masyaf was made a part of the
State of Damascus
The State of Damascus (; ') was one of the six states established by the French General Henri Gouraud in the French Mandate of Syria which followed the San Remo conference of 1920 and the defeat of King Faisal's short-lived monarchy in Syri ...
, but in 1929, a number of rural Alawite villages in its immediate vicinity, including
al-Rusafa,
al-Bayyadiyah,
Akakir,
Maryamin and
Abu Qubays, were ceded to the Alawite State. The latter merged with the rest of Syria in 1936. In 1939, Masyaf and its district was transferred from the Province of Hama to the Province of Latakia. Throughout the 1930s, rooms in the fortress were still being used by local residents.
In 1947, a year after Syria became independent from France, 3,808 Ismailis were recorded to be living in Masyaf. The Syrian government under President
Amin al-Hafiz
Amin may refer to:
People
* Amin (name), a masculine given name and also a surname
* Al-Amin, sixth Abbasid caliph, who ruled from 809 to 813
* Amin (Qing dynasty), Imperial Prince of the Qing Dynasty
* Idi Amin (c. 1925–2003), military ruler ...
established Masyaf as a center for carpet weaving in 1965. The weaving workshops mostly employed women. In the 1960s, Masyaf's Ismaili community largely identified with the
Nasserist movement, in contrast to the Alawites who dominated the surrounding villages who were mostly associated with the
Baathists.
In 1970, much of the town of Masyaf still remained within the confines of the city walls. However, by 1998, its population and urban space had expanded considerably outside the walls. The fortress is situated in the northeastern part of Masyaf's old city. The walls remained in place, but the homes and gardens of local residents were built immediately alongside them. Within the walls is a mosque dating to the 12th century and according to local residents, is associated with Saladin. The fortress is considered a national monument and is directly under the authority of the Syrian Directorate of Antiquities.
In the
Syrian Civil War after 2015, an alleged missile production facility in Masyaf and a base near the town, thought to be used by
Iran
Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran (IRI) and also known as Persia, is a country in West Asia. It borders Iraq to the west, Turkey, Azerbaijan, and Armenia to the northwest, the Caspian Sea to the north, Turkmenistan to the nort ...
ian forces and militias, became repeatedly targets of airstrikes attributed to Israel.
On 8 September 2024,
Israel
Israel, officially the State of Israel, is a country in West Asia. It Borders of Israel, shares borders with Lebanon to the north, Syria to the north-east, Jordan to the east, Egypt to the south-west, and the Mediterranean Sea to the west. Isr ...
launched a series of airstrikes as well as a ground raid by the
Shaldag unit
Unit 5101, more commonly known as Shaldag (, '' Kingfisher''), is one of the premier Israeli Air Force (IAF) Sayeret units. The unit is part of the 7th Special Air Forces Wing and is based in the Palmachim Airbase. The unit is led by an officer ...
, targeting an underground precision missile factory reportedly built by Iran.
Geography
Masyaf is situated along the foothills of the eastern slopes of the
Jabal Ansariyah coastal mountain range.
The average elevation of Masyaf is 485 meters. It is just west of the
al-Ghab Plain. The area is marked by gardens, orchards and fields of wheat and barley which are cultivated by local residents. To the north and south of Masyaf flow seasonal streams which feed into a
tributary
A tributary, or an ''affluent'', is a stream or river that flows into a larger stream (''main stem'' or ''"parent"''), river, or a lake. A tributary does not flow directly into a sea or ocean. Tributaries, and the main stem river into which they ...
of the
Orontes River
The Orontes (; from Ancient Greek , ) or Nahr al-ʿĀṣī, or simply Asi (, ; ) is a long river in Western Asia that begins in Lebanon, flowing northwards through Syria before entering the Mediterranean Sea near Samandağ in Hatay Province, Turk ...
, called al-Sarout.
The city of
Hama
Hama ( ', ) is a city on the banks of the Orontes River in west-central Syria. It is located north of Damascus and north of Homs. It is the provincial capital of the Hama Governorate. With a population of 996,000 (2023 census), Hama is one o ...
is 45 kilometers to the east and
Baniyas
Baniyas ( ') is a Mediterranean Sea, Mediterranean coastal city in Tartous Governorate, western Syria, located south of Latakia and north of Tartous.
It is known for its citrus fruit orchards and its export of wood. North of the city is an B ...
is 54 kilometers to the west. Hama is connected to the town via a road north of Masyaf which passes through
al-Laqbah and
Deir Shamil. Nearby villages include
al-Rusafa to the southeast,
al-Bayda to the south,
al-Suwaydah to the southwest,
Rabu
Rabu′ (, also spelled Rabho) is a Syrian village located in the Masyaf Subdistrict in Masyaf District
Masyaf District ( ') is a district (mantiqah) administratively belonging to Hama Governorate, Syria. At the 2004 Census it had a population ...
to the west,
Biqraqa to the northwest,
Hurayf and
Hayalin to the north,
Zaynah to the northeast and
al-Shiha to the east.
Climate
Masyaf has a
hot-summer Mediterranean climate
A Mediterranean climate ( ), also called a dry summer climate, described by Köppen and Trewartha as ''Cs'', is a temperate climate type that occurs in the lower mid-latitudes (normally 30 to 44 north and south latitude). Such climates typic ...
(
Köppen climate classification
The Köppen climate classification divides Earth climates into five main climate groups, with each group being divided based on patterns of seasonal precipitation and temperature. The five main groups are ''A'' (tropical), ''B'' (arid), ''C'' (te ...
''Csa''). In winter there is much more rainfall in Masyaf than in summer. The average annual temperature in Masyaf is . About of precipitation falls annually.
Demographics
According to the
Syria Central Bureau of Statistics, Masyaf had a population of 22,508 in the 2004 census. It is the administrative center of the
Masyaf District
Masyaf District ( ') is a district (mantiqah) administratively belonging to Hama Governorate, Syria. At the 2004 Census it had a population of 169,341. Its capital city, administrative centre is the city of Masyaf.
Sub-districts
The district of ...
and the
Masyaf Subdistrict. The latter had a population of 68,184 in 2004.
[General Census of Population and Housing 2004](_blank)
. Syria Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS). Hama Governorate. In the mid-1940s, its inhabitants were predominantly
Ismailis
Ismailism () is a branch of Shia Islam. The Isma'ili () get their name from their acceptance of Imam Isma'il ibn Jafar as the appointed spiritual successor ( imām) to Ja'far al-Sadiq, wherein they differ from the Twelver Shia, who accept M ...
.
Today, it is a religiously mixed city of Ismailis and
Alawites
Alawites () are an Arab ethnoreligious group who live primarily in the Levant region in West Asia and follow Alawism, a sect of Islam that splintered from early Shia as a ''ghulat'' branch during the ninth century. Alawites venerate Ali ...
, with a Christian minority.
In popular culture
Masyaf is featured as the base of operations of the Assassin Order during the ''
Third Crusade
The Third Crusade (1189–1192) was an attempt led by King Philip II of France, King Richard I of England and Emperor Frederick Barbarossa to reconquer the Holy Land following the capture of Jerusalem by the Ayyubid sultan Saladin in 1187. F ...
'' in the ''
Assassin's Creed
''Assassin's Creed'' is a historical fiction, historical action-adventure video game series and media franchise published by Ubisoft and developed mainly by its studio Ubisoft Montreal using the game engine Anvil (game engine), Anvil and its m ...
'' games series (mainly in ''
Assassin's Creed
''Assassin's Creed'' is a historical fiction, historical action-adventure video game series and media franchise published by Ubisoft and developed mainly by its studio Ubisoft Montreal using the game engine Anvil (game engine), Anvil and its m ...
'' and ''
Assassin's Creed: Revelations''). The village appears built on a rock, with the
Masyaf fortress at the top.
Gallery
File:Masyaf1.jpg
File:Masyaf2.jpg
File:Masyaf3.jpg
File:Masyaf4.jpg
File:Masyaf6.jpg
File:Masyaf-10-06-2009-Amjad-Helo-1.jpg, View of Masyaf from the mountain, summer of 2009
File:Masyaf-castle-2-amjad-helo-15-11-2008.jpg, Masyaf Castle
File:Masyaf-castle-amjad-helo-15-11-2008.jpg, Masyaf Castle
File:Masyaf-City-amjad-helo-15-11-2008.jpg, Masyaf from the Castle
References
Bibliography
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External links
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{{Authority control
Cities in Syria
Populated places in Masyaf District
Ismaili centres
Ancient Assyrian cities
Ismaili communities in Syria
Alawite communities in Syria
Christian communities in Syria