Jorge Mario Pedro Vargas Llosa, 1st Marquess of Vargas Llosa (born 28 March 1936), more commonly known as Mario Vargas Llosa (, ), is a Peruvian novelist, journalist, essayist and former politician, who also holds Spanish citizenship. Vargas Llosa is one of Latin America's most significant novelists and essayists, and one of the leading writers of his generation. Some critics consider him to have had a larger international impact and worldwide audience than any other writer of the
Latin American Boom. In 2010 he won the
Nobel Prize in Literature
)
, image = Nobel Prize.png
, caption =
, awarded_for = Outstanding contributions in literature
, presenter = Swedish Academy
, holder = Annie Ernaux (2022)
, location = Stockholm, Sweden
, year = 1901
, ...
, "for his cartography of structures of power and his trenchant images of the individual's resistance, revolt, and defeat." He also won the 1967
Rómulo Gallegos Prize
The Rómulo Gallegos International Novel Prize ( es, Premio internacional de novela Rómulo Gallegos) was created on 6 August 1964 by a presidential decree enacted by Venezuelan president Raúl Leoni, in honor of the Venezuelan politician and Pres ...
, the 1986
Prince of Asturias Award, the 1994
Miguel de Cervantes Prize
The Miguel de Cervantes Prize ( es, Premio de Literatura en Lengua Castellana Miguel de Cervantes) is awarded annually to honour the lifetime achievement of an outstanding writer in the Spanish language.
History
The prize was established in 1975 ...
, the 1995
Jerusalem Prize
The Jerusalem Prize for the Freedom of the Individual in Society is a biennial literary award given to writers whose works have dealt with themes of human freedom in society.
It is awarded at the Jerusalem International Book Forum (previously kn ...
, the 2012
Carlos Fuentes International Prize, and the 2018
Pablo Neruda Order of Artistic and Cultural Merit
The Pablo Neruda Order of Artistic and Cultural Merit ( es, Orden al Mérito Artístico y Cultural Pablo Neruda) was created in 2004 by the National Council of Culture and the Arts of the government of Chile, as part of the commemoration of the 100 ...
.
Vargas Llosa rose to international fame in the 1960s with novels such as ''
The Time of the Hero
''The Time of the Hero'' (original title: ''La ciudad y los perros'', literally "The City and the Dogs") is a 1963 novel by Peruvian writer and Nobel laureate Mario Vargas Llosa. It was Vargas Llosa's first novel and is set among the cadets at t ...
'' (''La ciudad y los perros'', literally ''The City and the Dogs'', 1963/1966), ''
The Green House
''The Green House'' (Original title: ''La Casa Verde'') is the second novel by the Peruvian writer Mario Vargas Llosa, published in 1966. The novel is set over a period of forty years (from the early part of the 20th century to the 1960s) in tw ...
'' (''La casa verde'', 1965/1968), and the monumental ''
Conversation in the Cathedral
''Conversation in The Cathedral'' (original title: ''Conversación en La catedral'') is a 1969 novel by Spanish-Peruvian writer and essayist Mario Vargas Llosa, translated by Gregory Rabassa. One of Vargas Llosa's major works, it is a portrayal of ...
'' (''Conversación en la catedral'', 1969/1975). He writes prolifically across an array of
literary genres, including
literary criticism
Literary criticism (or literary studies) is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature. Modern literary criticism is often influenced by literary theory, which is the philosophical discussion of literature's goals and methods. Th ...
and journalism. His novels include comedies, murder mysteries, historical novels, and political thrillers. Several, such as ''
Captain Pantoja and the Special Service
''Captain Pantoja and the Special Service'' ( es, Pantaleón y las visitadoras; 1973) is a relatively short comedic novel by acclaimed Peruvian writer Mario Vargas Llosa.
The story takes place in the Peruvian department of Amazonas, where troo ...
'' (1973/1978) and ''
Aunt Julia and the Scriptwriter
''Aunt Julia and the Scriptwriter'' ( es, La tía Julia y el escribidor) is the seventh novel by Nobel Prize-winning author Mario Vargas Llosa. It was published by Seix Barral, S.A., Spain, in 1977.
Plot
Set in Peru during the 1950s, it is the ...
'' (1977/1982), have been adapted as feature films.
Many of Vargas Llosa's works are influenced by the writer's perception of Peruvian society and his own experiences as a native Peruvian. Increasingly, he has expanded his range, and tackled themes that arise from other parts of the world. In his essays, Vargas Llosa has made many criticisms of nationalism in different parts of the world.
[ Kordić 2005, pp. 265–268.] Another change over the course of his career has been a shift from a style and approach associated with
literary modernism
Literary modernism, or modernist literature, originated in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and is characterized by a self-conscious break with traditional ways of writing, in both poetry and prose fiction writing. Modernism experimented ...
, to a sometimes playful
postmodernism
Postmodernism is an intellectual stance or Rhetorical modes, mode of discourseNuyen, A.T., 1992. The Role of Rhetorical Devices in Postmodernist Discourse. Philosophy & Rhetoric, pp.183–194. characterized by philosophical skepticism, skepticis ...
.
Like many Latin American writers, Vargas Llosa has been politically active throughout his career. While he initially supported the Cuban revolutionary government of
Fidel Castro
Fidel Alejandro Castro Ruz (; ; 13 August 1926 – 25 November 2016) was a Cuban revolutionary and politician who was the leader of Cuba from 1959 to 2008, serving as the prime minister of Cuba from 1959 to 1976 and president from 1976 to 200 ...
, Vargas Llosa later became disenchanted with its policies, particularly after the imprisonment of Cuban poet
Heberto Padilla
Heberto Juan Padilla (20 January 1932 – 25 September 2000) was a Cuban poet put to the center of the so-called Padilla affair when he was imprisoned for criticizing the Cuban government. He was born in Puerta de Golpe, Pinar del Río, Cuba. ...
in 1971, and now identifies as a liberal. He ran for the
Peruvian presidency in
1990
File:1990 Events Collage.png, From left, clockwise: The 1990 FIFA World Cup is played in Italy; The Human Genome Project is launched; Voyager I takes the famous Pale Blue Dot image- speaking on the fragility of Humankind, humanity on Earth, Astroph ...
with the center-right ''
Frente Democrático'' coalition, advocating
classical liberal reforms, but lost the election to
Alberto Fujimori
Alberto Kenya Fujimori Inomoto ( or ; born 28 July 1938) is a Peruvian politician, professor and former engineer who was President of Peru from 28 July 1990 until 22 November 2000. Frequently described as a dictator,
*
*
*
*
*
*
he remains a ...
. He is the person who, in 1990, "coined the phrase that circled the globe",
[''Terra.'' 7 October 2010]
Vargas Llosa a 20 años de "México es una dictadura perfecta"
(Vargas Llosa, 20 years after "Mexico is a perfect dictatorship"). declaring on Mexican television, "Mexico is the perfect dictatorship", a statement that became an adage during the following decade.
Vargas Llosa is also one of the 25 leading figures on the Information and Democracy Commission launched by
Reporters Without Borders
Reporters Without Borders (RWB; french: Reporters sans frontières; RSF) is an international non-profit and non-governmental organization with the stated aim of safeguarding the right to freedom of information. It describes its advocacy as found ...
.
Early life and family

Mario Vargas Llosa was born to a middle-class family on 28 March 1936, in the southern Peruvian provincial city of
Arequipa
Arequipa (; Aymara and qu, Ariqipa) is a city and capital of province and the eponymous department of Peru. It is the seat of the Constitutional Court of Peru and often dubbed the "legal capital of Peru". It is the second most populated city ...
.
He was the only child of Ernesto Vargas Maldonado and Dora Llosa Ureta (the former a radio operator in an aviation company, the latter the daughter of an old
criollo family), who separated a few months before his birth.
Shortly after Mario's birth, his father revealed that he was having an affair with a German woman; consequently, Mario has two younger half-brothers: Enrique and Ernesto Vargas.
Vargas Llosa lived with his maternal family in Arequipa until a year after his parents' divorce, when his maternal grandfather was named
honorary consul for Peru in
Bolivia
, image_flag = Bandera de Bolivia (Estado).svg
, flag_alt = Horizontal tricolor (red, yellow, and green from top to bottom) with the coat of arms of Bolivia in the center
, flag_alt2 = 7 × 7 square p ...
.
With his mother and her family, Vargas Llosa then moved to
Cochabamba, Bolivia, where he spent the early years of his childhood.
His maternal family, the Llosas, were sustained by his grandfather, who managed a cotton farm. As a child, Vargas Llosa was led to believe that his father had died—his mother and her family did not want to explain that his parents had separated.
During the government of Peruvian President
José Bustamante y Rivero
José is a predominantly Spanish and Portuguese form of the given name Joseph. While spelled alike, this name is pronounced differently in each language: Spanish ; Portuguese (or ).
In French, the name ''José'', pronounced , is an old vernacu ...
, Vargas Llosa's maternal grandfather obtained a diplomatic post in the northern Peruvian coastal city of
Piura
Piura is a city in northwestern Peru located in the Sechura Desert on the Piura River. It is the capital of the Piura Region and the Piura Province. Its population was 484,475 as of 2017.
It was here that Spanish Conqueror Francisco Pizarro fou ...
and the entire family returned to Peru.
While in Piura, Vargas Llosa attended elementary school at the religious academy ''Colegio
Salesiano''.
In 1946, at the age of ten, he moved to
Lima
Lima ( ; ), originally founded as Ciudad de Los Reyes (City of The Kings) is the capital and the largest city of Peru. It is located in the valleys of the Chillón River, Chillón, Rímac River, Rímac and Lurín Rivers, in the desert zone of t ...
and met his father for the first time.
His parents re-established their relationship and lived in
Magdalena del Mar
Magdalena del Mar, commonly known simply as Magdalena, is a seaside district of the Lima Province in Peru and one of the districts that comprise the city of Lima. Its current mayor is Carlomagno Chacón Gómez. Magdalena was officially establishe ...
, a middle-class Lima suburb, during his teenage years. While in Lima, he studied at the ''Colegio La Salle'', a Christian middle school, from 1947 to 1949.
When Vargas Llosa was fourteen, his father sent him to the
Leoncio Prado Military Academy in Lima. At the age of 16, before his graduation, Vargas Llosa began working as an amateur journalist for local newspapers.
He withdrew from the military academy and finished his studies in Piura, where he worked for the local newspaper, ''La Industria'', and witnessed the theatrical performance of his first dramatic work, ''La huida del Inca''.
In 1953, during the government of
Manuel A. Odría
Manuel Arturo Odría Amoretti (26 November 1896 – 18 February 1974) was a military officer who served as the 45th President of Peru, essentially ruling as a military dictator.
Biography
Early life and military career
Manuel Odría was ...
, Vargas Llosa enrolled in Lima's
National University of San Marcos, to study law and literature. He married
Julia Urquidi, his maternal uncle's sister-in-law, in 1955 at the age of 19; she was 10 years older.
Vargas Llosa began his literary career in earnest in 1957 with the publication of his first short stories, "The Leaders" ("Los jefes") and "The Grandfather" ("El abuelo"), while working for two Peruvian newspapers. Upon his graduation from the National University of San Marcos in 1958, he received a scholarship to study at the
Complutense University of Madrid
The Complutense University of Madrid ( es, Universidad Complutense de Madrid; UCM, links=no, ''Universidad de Madrid'', ''Universidad Central de Madrid''; la, Universitas Complutensis Matritensis, links=no) is a public research university loca ...
in Spain. In 1960, after his scholarship in Madrid had expired, Vargas Llosa moved to France under the impression that he would receive a scholarship to study there; however, upon arriving in Paris, he learned that his scholarship request was denied.
Despite Mario and Julia's unexpected financial status, the couple decided to remain in Paris where he began to write prolifically —even as a ghostwriter.
Their marriage lasted only a few more years, ending in divorce in 1964.
A year later, Vargas Llosa
married his first cousin, Patricia Llosa,
with whom he had three children:
Álvaro Vargas Llosa (born 1966), a writer and editor; Gonzalo (born 1967), an international civil servant; and Morgana (born 1974), a photographer.
Writing career
Beginning and first major works
Vargas Llosa's first novel, ''
The Time of the Hero
''The Time of the Hero'' (original title: ''La ciudad y los perros'', literally "The City and the Dogs") is a 1963 novel by Peruvian writer and Nobel laureate Mario Vargas Llosa. It was Vargas Llosa's first novel and is set among the cadets at t ...
'' (''La ciudad y los perros''), was published in 1963. The book is set among a community of cadets in a Lima military school, and the plot is based on the author's own experiences at Lima's
Leoncio Prado Military Academy.
This early piece gained wide public attention and immediate success.
Its vitality and adept use of sophisticated literary techniques immediately impressed critics,
and it won the ''
Premio de la Crítica Española The "Premios de la Crítica" are literary prizes awarded on a yearly basis by the Asociación Española de Críticos Literarios to the best narrative and poetic works published in Spain on the preceding year. The prizes cover all four official lang ...
'' award.
Nevertheless, its sharp criticism of the Peruvian military establishment led to controversy in Peru. Several Peruvian generals attacked the novel, claiming that it was the work of a "degenerate mind" and stating that Vargas Llosa was "paid by Ecuador" to undermine the prestige of the Peruvian Army.
In 1965, Vargas Llosa published his second novel, ''
The Green House
''The Green House'' (Original title: ''La Casa Verde'') is the second novel by the Peruvian writer Mario Vargas Llosa, published in 1966. The novel is set over a period of forty years (from the early part of the 20th century to the 1960s) in tw ...
'' (''La casa verde''), about a brothel called "The Green House" and how its quasi-mythical presence affects the lives of the characters. The main plot follows Bonifacia, a girl who is about to receive the vows of the church, and her transformation into ''la Selvatica'', the best-known prostitute of "The Green House". The novel was immediately acclaimed, confirming Vargas Llosa as an important voice of Latin American narrative.
''The Green House'' won the first edition of the
Rómulo Gallegos International Novel Prize in 1967, contending with works by veteran Uruguayan writer
Juan Carlos Onetti
Juan Carlos Onetti Borges (July 1, 1909 – May 30, 1994) was a Uruguayan novelist and author of short stories.
Early life
Onetti was born in Montevideo, Uruguay. He was the son of Carlos Onetti, a customs official, and Honoria Borges, who b ...
and by
Gabriel García Márquez. This novel alone accumulated enough awards to place the author among the leading figures of the
Latin American Boom.
Some critics still consider ''The Green House'' to be Vargas Llosa's finest and most important achievement.
Indeed, Latin American literary critic
Gerald Martin suggests that ''The Green House'' is "one of the greatest novels to have emerged from Latin America".
Vargas Llosa's third novel, ''
Conversation in the Cathedral
''Conversation in The Cathedral'' (original title: ''Conversación en La catedral'') is a 1969 novel by Spanish-Peruvian writer and essayist Mario Vargas Llosa, translated by Gregory Rabassa. One of Vargas Llosa's major works, it is a portrayal of ...
'' (''Conversación en la catedral''), was published in 1969, when he was 33. This ambitious narrative is the story of Santiago Zavala, the son of a government minister, and Ambrosio, his chauffeur. A random meeting at a
dog pound leads the pair to a riveting conversation at a nearby bar known as "The Cathedral". During the encounter, Zavala searches for the truth about his father's role in the murder of a notorious Peruvian underworld figure, shedding light on the workings of a dictatorship along the way. Unfortunately for Zavala, his quest results in a dead end with no answers and no sign of a better future.
The novel attacks the dictatorial government of Odría by showing how a dictatorship controls and destroys lives.
The persistent theme of hopelessness makes ''Conversation in the Cathedral'' Vargas Llosa's most bitter novel.
He lectured on Spanish American Literature at
King's College London
King's College London (informally King's or KCL) is a public research university located in London, England. King's was established by royal charter in 1829 under the patronage of King George IV and the Duke of Wellington. In 1836, King's ...
from 1969 to 1970.
1970s and the "discovery of humor"
In 1971, Vargas Llosa published ''García Márquez: Story of a Deicide'' (''García Márquez: historia de un deicidio''), which was his doctoral thesis for the Complutense University of Madrid.
Although Vargas Llosa wrote this book-length study about his then friend, the Colombian
Nobel laureate
The Nobel Prizes ( sv, Nobelpriset, no, Nobelprisen) are awarded annually by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, the Swedish Academy, the Karolinska Institutet, and the Norwegian Nobel Committee to individuals and organizations who make out ...
writer Gabriel García Márquez, they did not speak to each other again. In 1976, Vargas Llosa punched García Márquez in the face in
Mexico City
Mexico City ( es, link=no, Ciudad de México, ; abbr.: CDMX; Nahuatl: ''Altepetl Mexico'') is the capital and largest city of Mexico, and the most populous city in North America. One of the world's alpha cities, it is located in the Valley o ...
at the ''
Palacio de Bellas Artes
The Palacio de Bellas Artes (Palace of Fine Arts) is a prominent cultural center in Mexico City. It has hosted notable events in music, dance, theatre, opera and literature in Mexico and has held important exhibitions of painting, sculpture and p ...
'', ending the friendship. Neither writer had publicly stated the underlying reasons for the quarrel. A photograph of García Márquez sporting a black eye was published in 2007, reigniting public interest in the feud.
Despite the decades of silence, in 2007, Vargas Llosa agreed to allow part of his book to be used as the introduction to a 40th-anniversary edition of García Márquez's ''
One Hundred Years of Solitude'', which was re-released in Spain and throughout Latin America that year. ''Historia de un Deicidio'' was also reissued in that year, as part of Vargas Llosa's complete works.
Following the monumental work ''Conversation in the Cathedral'', Vargas Llosa's output shifted away from more serious themes such as politics and problems with society. Latin American literary scholar Raymond L. Williams describes this phase in his writing career as "the discovery of humor".
[Qtd. in ] His first attempt at a satirical novel was ''Captain Pantoja and the Special Service'' (''Pantaleón y las visitadoras''), published in 1973. This short, comic novel offers vignettes of dialogues and documents about the Peruvian armed forces and a corps of prostitutes assigned to visit military outposts in remote jungle areas.
These plot elements are similar to Vargas Llosa's earlier novel ''The Green House'', but in a different form. ''Captain Pantoja and the Special Service'' is, therefore, essentially a parody of both ''The Green House'' and the literary approach that novel represents.
Vargas Llosa's motivation to write the novel came from actually witnessing prostitutes being hired by the Peruvian Army and brought to serve soldiers in the jungle.
From 1974 to 1987, Vargas Llosa focused on his writing, but also took the time to pursue other endeavors.
In 1975, he co-directed an unsuccessful motion-picture adaptation of his novel, ''Captain Pantoja and the Secret Service''.
In 1976 he was elected President of
PEN International, the worldwide association of writers and oldest human rights organisation, a position he held until 1979.
During this time, Vargas Llosa constantly traveled to speak at conferences organized by international institutions such as the
Hebrew University of Jerusalem
The Hebrew University of Jerusalem (HUJI; he, הַאוּנִיבֶרְסִיטָה הַעִבְרִית בִּירוּשָׁלַיִם) is a public research university based in Jerusalem, Israel. Co-founded by Albert Einstein and Dr. Chaim Weiz ...
and the
University of Cambridge
, mottoeng = Literal: From here, light and sacred draughts.
Non literal: From this place, we gain enlightenment and precious knowledge.
, established =
, other_name = The Chancellor, Masters and Schola ...
, where he was Simón Bolívar Professor and an Overseas Fellow of
Churchill College
Churchill College is a constituent college of the University of Cambridge, England. It has a primary focus on science, engineering and technology, but still retains a strong interest in the arts and humanities.
In 1958, a trust was establish ...
in 1977–78.
In 1977, Vargas Llosa was elected as a member of the
Peruvian Academy of Language, a membership he still holds today. That year, he also published ''
Aunt Julia and the Scriptwriter
''Aunt Julia and the Scriptwriter'' ( es, La tía Julia y el escribidor) is the seventh novel by Nobel Prize-winning author Mario Vargas Llosa. It was published by Seix Barral, S.A., Spain, in 1977.
Plot
Set in Peru during the 1950s, it is the ...
'' (''La tía Julia y el escribidor''), based in part on his marriage to his first wife, Julia Urquidi, to whom he dedicated the novel. She later wrote a memoir, ''Lo que Varguitas no dijo'' (''What Little Vargas Didn't Say''), in which she gives her personal account of their relationship. She states that Vargas Llosa's account exaggerates many negative points in their courtship and marriage while minimizing her role of assisting his literary career. ''Aunt Julia and the Scriptwriter'' is considered one of the most striking examples of how the language and imagery of popular culture can be used in literature. The novel was adapted in 1990 into a Hollywood feature film, ''
Tune in Tomorrow
''Tune in Tomorrow'' is a 1990 American comedy film directed by Jon Amiel. It is based on the 1977 Mario Vargas Llosa novel ''Aunt Julia and the Scriptwriter'', and was released under that same title in many countries. Relocated from the novel's ...
''.
Later novels

Vargas Llosa's fourth major novel, ''
The War of the End of the World
''The War of the End of the World'' ( es, La guerra del fin del mundo) is a 1981 novel written by Peruvian novelist Mario Vargas Llosa. It is a fictionalized account of the War of Canudos conflict in late 19th-century Brazil.
Plot summary
In the ...
'' (''La guerra del fin del mundo''), was published in 1981 and was his first attempt at a historical novel.
This work initiated a radical change in Vargas Llosa's style towards themes such as
messianism and irrational human behaviour. It recreates the
War of Canudos, an incident in 19th-century Brazil in which an armed
millenarian cult held off a siege by the national army for months.
As in Vargas Llosa's earliest work, this novel carries a sober and serious theme, and its tone is dark.
Vargas Llosa's bold exploration of humanity's propensity to idealize violence, and his account of a man-made catastrophe brought on by fanaticism on all sides, earned the novel substantial recognition.
Because of the book's ambition and execution, critics have argued that this is one of Vargas Llosa's greatest literary pieces.
Even though the novel has been acclaimed in Brazil, it was initially poorly received because a foreigner was writing about a Brazilian theme. The book was also criticized as revolutionary and anti-socialist.
[ Vargas Llosa says that this book is his favorite and was his most difficult accomplishment.]
After completing ''The War of the End of the World'', Vargas Llosa began to write novels that were significantly shorter than many of his earlier books. In 1983, he finished ''The Real Life of Alejandro Mayta'' (''Historia de Mayta'', 1984). The novel focuses on a leftist insurrection that took place on 29 May 1962, in the Andean city of Jauja
Jauja (Shawsha Wanka Quechua: Sausa, Shawsha or Shausha, formerly in Spanish Xauxa, with pronunciation of "x" as "sh") is a city and capital of Jauja Province in Peru. It is situated in the fertile Mantaro Valley, to the northwest of Huancayo (t ...
. Later the same year, during the Sendero Luminoso
The Shining Path ( es, Sendero Luminoso), officially the Communist Party of Peru (, abbr. PCP), is a communist guerrilla group in Peru following Marxism–Leninism–Maoism and Gonzalo Thought. Academics often refer to the group as the Communis ...
uprising, Vargas Llosa was asked by the Peruvian President Fernando Belaúnde Terry to join the Investigatory Commission, a task force to inquire into the massacre of eight journalists at the hands of the villagers of Uchuraccay Uchuraccay () is a village in the Peruvian province of Huanta, Ayacucho Region. It is located 4,000 metres above sea level. The population as of the census of 1981 was 470 inhabitants. In 1983, eight Peruvian journalists were murdered in Uchuraccay, ...
. The commission's main purpose was to investigate the murders in order to provide information regarding the incident to the public. Following his involvement with the Investigatory Commission, Vargas Llosa published a series of articles to defend his position in the affair. In 1986, he completed his next novel, ''Who Killed Palomino Molero'' (''¿Quién mató a Palomino Molero?''), which he began writing shortly after the end of the Uchuraccay investigation. Though the plot of this mystery novel
Mystery is a fiction genre where the nature of an event, usually a murder or other crime, remains mysterious until the end of the story. Often within a closed circle of suspects, each suspect is usually provided with a credible motive and a reas ...
is similar to the tragic events at Uchuraccay, literary critic Roy Boland points out that it was not an attempt to reconstruct the murders, but rather a "literary exorcism" of Vargas Llosa's own experiences during the commission. The experience also inspired one of Vargas Llosa's later novels, ''Death in the Andes
''Death in the Andes'' (''Lituma en los Andes'') is a 1993 novel by the Nobel Prize-winning Peruvian author Mario Vargas Llosa. It follows the character Lituma, from '' Who Killed Palomino Molero?'', after being transferred to the rural town of N ...
'' (''Lituma en los Andes''), originally published in 1993 in Barcelona.
It was almost 20 years before Vargas Llosa wrote another major work: '' The Feast of the Goat'' (''La fiesta del chivo''), a political thriller
A political thriller is a thriller that is set against the backdrop of a political power struggle, high stakes and suspense is the core of the story. The genre often forces the audiences to consider and understand the importance of politics. The ...
, was published in 2000 (and in English in 2001). According to Williams, it is Vargas Llosa's most complete and most ambitious novel since ''The War of the End of the World''. Critic Sabine Koellmann sees it in the line of his earlier novels such as "Conversación en la catedral" depicting the effects of authoritarianism, violence and the abuse of power on the individual.[.] Based on the dictatorship of Rafael Trujillo
Rafael Leónidas Trujillo Molina ( , ; 24 October 189130 May 1961), nicknamed ''El Jefe'' (, "The Chief" or "The Boss"), was a Dominican dictator who ruled the Dominican Republic from February 1930 until his assassination in May 1961. He ser ...
, who governed the Dominican Republic
The Dominican Republic ( ; es, República Dominicana, ) is a country located on the island of Hispaniola in the Greater Antilles archipelago of the Caribbean region. It occupies the eastern five-eighths of the island, which it shares wit ...
from 1930 until his assassination in 1961, the novel has three main strands: one concerns Urania Cabral, the daughter of a former politician and Trujillo loyalist, who returns for the first time since leaving the Dominican Republic after Trujillo's assassination 30 years earlier; the second concentrates on the assassination itself, the conspirators who carry it out, and its consequences; and the third and final strand deals with Trujillo himself in scenes from the end of his regime. The book quickly received positive reviews in Spain and Latin America, and has had a significant impact in Latin America, being regarded as one of Vargas Llosa's best works.
In 1995, he wrote and published a children's book called ''Hitos y Mitos Literarios'' ("The Milestones and the Stories of Greatest Literary Works"), illustrated by Willi Glasauer
Willi Glasauer (born 9 December 1938 in Stříbro) is a German
German(s) may refer to:
* Germany (of or related to)
**Germania (historical use)
* Germans, citizens of Germany, people of German ancestry, or native speakers of the German languag ...
. The book includes fun facts, trivia, and information accompanied by photos and Willi Glasauer
Willi Glasauer (born 9 December 1938 in Stříbro) is a German
German(s) may refer to:
* Germany (of or related to)
**Germania (historical use)
* Germans, citizens of Germany, people of German ancestry, or native speakers of the German languag ...
's illustrations of the likes of '' Brave New World'' by Aldous Huxley, '' Manhattan Transfer'' by John Dos Passos, '' The Stranger'' by Albert Camus
Albert Camus ( , ; ; 7 November 1913 – 4 January 1960) was a French philosopher, author, dramatist, and journalist. He was awarded the 1957 Nobel Prize in Literature at the age of 44, the second-youngest recipient in history. His work ...
, ''Lolita
''Lolita'' is a 1955 novel written by Russian-American novelist Vladimir Nabokov. The novel is notable for its controversial subject: the protagonist and unreliable narrator, a middle-aged literature professor under the pseudonym Humbert Humber ...
'' by Vladimir Nabokov, '' One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich'' by Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn
Aleksandr Isayevich Solzhenitsyn. (11 December 1918 – 3 August 2008) was a Russian novelist. One of the most famous Soviet dissidents, Solzhenitsyn was an outspoken critic of communism and helped to raise global awareness of political repress ...
, '' Death in Venice'' by Thomas Mann
Paul Thomas Mann ( , ; ; 6 June 1875 – 12 August 1955) was a German novelist, short story writer, social critic, philanthropist, essayist, and the 1929 Nobel Prize in Literature laureate. His highly symbolic and ironic epic novels and novella ...
, '' The Great Gatsby'' by F. Scott Fitzgerald, ''Herzog
''Herzog'' (female ''Herzogin'') is a German hereditary title held by one who rules a territorial duchy, exercises feudal authority over an estate called a duchy, or possesses a right by law or tradition to be referred to by the ducal title. T ...
'' by Saul Bellow, '' East of Eden'' by John Steinbeck
John Ernst Steinbeck Jr. (; February 27, 1902 – December 20, 1968) was an American writer and the 1962 Nobel Prize in Literature winner "for his realistic and imaginative writings, combining as they do sympathetic humor and keen social ...
, '' Steppenwolf'' by Hermann Hesse
Hermann Karl Hesse (; 2 July 1877 – 9 August 1962) was a German-Swiss poet, novelist, and painter. His best-known works include ''Demian'', ''Steppenwolf (novel), Steppenwolf'', ''Siddhartha (novel), Siddhartha'', and ''The Glass Bead Game'', ...
, and '' A Moveable Feast'' by Ernest Hemingway
Ernest Miller Hemingway (July 21, 1899 – July 2, 1961) was an American novelist, short-story writer, and journalist. His economical and understated style—which he termed the iceberg theory—had a strong influence on 20th-century fic ...
.
In 2003 he wrote '' The Way to Paradise'' in which he studies Flora Tristan
Flore Célestine Thérèse Henriette Tristán y Moscoso better known as Flora Tristan (7 April 1803 – 14 November 1844) was a French-Peruvian socialist writer and activist. She made important contributions to early feminist theory, and argued ...
and Paul Gauguin
Eugène Henri Paul Gauguin (, ; ; 7 June 1848 – 8 May 1903) was a French Post-Impressionist artist. Unappreciated until after his death, Gauguin is now recognized for his experimental use of colour and Synthetist style that were distinct fr ...
.
In 2006, Vargas Llosa wrote ''The Bad Girl
''The Bad Girl'', originally published in 2006 in Spanish as ''Travesuras de la niña mala'' (literally - ''The mischief of the bad girl''), is a novel by Peruvian author Mario Vargas Llosa, who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2010.
Journali ...
'' (''Travesuras de la niña mala''), which journalist Kathryn Harrison argues is a rewrite (rather than simply a recycling) of Gustave Flaubert
Gustave Flaubert ( , , ; 12 December 1821 – 8 May 1880) was a French novelist. Highly influential, he has been considered the leading exponent of literary realism in his country. According to the literary theorist Kornelije Kvas, "in Flauber ...
's '' Madame Bovary'' (1856). In Vargas Llosa's version, the plot relates the decades-long obsession of its narrator, a Peruvian expatriate in Paris, with a woman with whom he first fell in love when both were teenagers.
In 2019 he published the novel ''Tiempos recios'' (''Fierce times'' ), about the 1954 coup in Guatemala.
Political career
Turn to liberalism
Like many other Latin American intellectuals, Vargas Llosa was initially a supporter of the Cuban revolutionary government of Fidel Castro
Fidel Alejandro Castro Ruz (; ; 13 August 1926 – 25 November 2016) was a Cuban revolutionary and politician who was the leader of Cuba from 1959 to 2008, serving as the prime minister of Cuba from 1959 to 1976 and president from 1976 to 200 ...
. He studied Marxism
Marxism is a Left-wing politics, left-wing to Far-left politics, far-left method of socioeconomic analysis that uses a Materialism, materialist interpretation of historical development, better known as historical materialism, to understand S ...
in depth as a university student and was later persuaded by communist
Communism (from Latin la, communis, lit=common, universal, label=none) is a far-left sociopolitical, philosophical, and economic ideology and current within the socialist movement whose goal is the establishment of a communist society, a s ...
ideals after the success of the Cuban Revolution. Gradually, Vargas Llosa came to believe that socialism
Socialism is a left-wing economic philosophy and movement encompassing a range of economic systems characterized by the dominance of social ownership of the means of production as opposed to private ownership. As a term, it describes the e ...
was incompatible with what he considered to be general liberties and freedoms. The official rupture between the writer and the policies of the Cuban government occurred with the so-called 'Padilla Affair', when the Castro regime imprisoned the poet Heberto Padilla
Heberto Juan Padilla (20 January 1932 – 25 September 2000) was a Cuban poet put to the center of the so-called Padilla affair when he was imprisoned for criticizing the Cuban government. He was born in Puerta de Golpe, Pinar del Río, Cuba. ...
for a month in 1971. Vargas Llosa, along with other intellectuals of the time, wrote to Castro protesting the Cuban political system and its imprisonment of the artist. Vargas Llosa has identified himself with liberalism rather than extreme left-wing political ideologies ever since. Since he relinquished his earlier leftism, he has opposed both left- and right-wing authoritarian regimes.
Investigatory Commission
With his appointment to the Investigatory Commission on the in 1983, he experienced what literary critic Jean Franco
Jean Franco (March 31, 1924 – December 14, 2022) was a British-born American academic and literary critic known for her pioneering work on Latin American literature.Risen, Clay"Jean Franco, 98, Pioneering Scholar of Latin American Literature, Die ...
calls "the most uncomfortable event in ispolitical career". Unfortunately for Vargas Llosa, his involvement with the Investigatory Commission led to immediate negative reactions and defamation from the Peruvian press; many suggested that the massacre was a conspiracy to keep the journalists from reporting the presence of government paramilitary forces in Uchuraccay. The commission concluded that it was the indigenous villagers who had been responsible for the killings; for Vargas Llosa the incident showed "how vulnerable democracy is in Latin America and how easily it dies under dictatorships of the right and left". These conclusions, and Vargas Llosa personally, came under intense criticism: anthropologist Enrique Mayer, for instance, accused him of "paternalism", while fellow anthropologist Carlos Iván Degregori criticized him for his ignorance of the Andean world. Vargas Llosa was accused of actively colluding in a government cover-up of army involvement in the massacre. American Latin American literature
Latin American literature consists of the oral and written literature of Latin America in several languages, particularly in Spanish, Portuguese, and the indigenous languages of the Americas. It rose to particular prominence globally during the ...
scholar Misha Kokotovic summarizes that the novelist was charged with seeing "indigenous cultures as a 'primitive' obstacle to the full realization of his Western model of modernity". Shocked both by the atrocity itself and then by the reaction his report had provoked, Vargas Llosa responded that his critics were apparently more concerned with his report than with the hundreds of peasants who later died at the hands of the Sendero Luminoso guerrilla organization.
Presidential candidacy
In 1987, he helped form and soon became a leader of the center-right party Movimiento Libertad. The following year his party entered a coalition with the parties of Peru's two principal conservative politicians at the time, ex-president Fernando Belaúnde Terry (of the Popular Action party) and Luis Bedoya Reyes
Luis Fernán Bedoya Reyes (20 February 1919 – 18 March 2021) was a Peruvian Christian Democrat Party (Peru), Christian Democrat (PDC) and Christian People's Party (Peru), Christian People's Party (PPC) politician who served as the List of may ...
(of the '' Partido Popular Cristiano''), to form the tripartite center-right coalition known as '' Frente Democrático'' (FREDEMO). He ran for the presidency of Peru
The president of Peru ( es, link=no, presidente del Perú), officially called the president of the Republic of Peru ( es, link=no, presidente de la República del Perú), is the head of state and head of government of Peru. The president is th ...
in 1990 as the candidate of the FREDEMO coalition with the support of the United States. He proposed neoliberal policies similar to Fujimori that included a drastic economic austerity
Austerity is a set of political-economic policies that aim to reduce government budget deficits through spending cuts, tax increases, or a combination of both. There are three primary types of austerity measures: higher taxes to fund spend ...
program that frightened most of the country's poor; this program emphasized the need for privatization, a market economy, free trade, and most importantly, the dissemination of private property. Although he won the first round with 34% of the vote, Vargas Llosa was defeated by a then-unknown agricultural engineer, Alberto Fujimori
Alberto Kenya Fujimori Inomoto ( or ; born 28 July 1938) is a Peruvian politician, professor and former engineer who was President of Peru from 28 July 1990 until 22 November 2000. Frequently described as a dictator,
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he remains a ...
, in the subsequent run-off. Vargas Llosa included an account of his run for the presidency in the memoir ''A Fish in the Water
''A Fish in the Water'' (originally published as ' in 1993), is the memoir of Peruvian writer Mario Vargas Llosa, who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2010. It covers two main periods of his life: the first comprising the years between 1946 ...
'' (''El pez en el agua'', 1993). Since his political defeat, he has focused mainly on his writing, with only occasional political involvement.
A month after losing the election, at the invitation of Octavio Paz, Vargas Llosa attended a conference in Mexico entitled, "The 20th Century: The Experience of Freedom". Focused on the collapse of communist rule in central and eastern Europe, it was broadcast on Mexican television from 27 August to 2 September. Addressing the conference on 30 August 1990, Vargas Llosa embarrassed his hosts by condemning the Mexican system of power based on the rule of the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI), which had been in power for 61 years. Criticizing the PRI by name, he commented, "I don't believe that there has been in Latin America any case of a system of dictatorship which has so efficiently recruited the intellectual milieu, bribing it with great subtlety." He declared, "Mexico is the perfect dictatorship. The perfect dictatorship is not communism, not the USSR, not Fidel Castro; the perfect dictatorship is Mexico. Because it is a camouflaged dictatorship." The statement, "Mexico is the perfect dictatorship" became a cliché in Mexico and internationally, until the PRI fell from power in 2000.
Later life
Vargas Llosa has mainly lived in Madrid since the 1990s, but spends roughly three months of the year in Peru with his extended family. He also frequently visits London where he occasionally spends long periods. Vargas Llosa acquired Spanish citizenship in 1993, though he still holds Peruvian nationality. The writer often reiterates his love for both countries. In his Nobel speech he observed: "I carry Peru deep inside me because that is where I was born, grew up, was formed, and lived those experiences of childhood and youth that shaped my personality and forged my calling". He then added: "I love Spain as much as Peru, and my debt to her is as great as my gratitude. If not for Spain, I never would have reached this podium or become a known writer".
Mario Vargas Llosa served as a visiting professor of Latin American studies at Harvard University
Harvard University is a private Ivy League research university in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Founded in 1636 as Harvard College and named for its first benefactor, the Puritan clergyman John Harvard, it is the oldest institution of higher le ...
during the 1992–1993 academic year. Harvard later recognized Vargas Llosa by conferring upon him an honorary Doctor of Letters degree in 1999. In 1994 he was elected a member of the ''Real Academia Española
The Royal Spanish Academy ( es, Real Academia Española, generally abbreviated as RAE) is Spain's official royal institution with a mission to ensure the stability of the Spanish language. It is based in Madrid, Spain, and is affiliated with ...
'' (Royal Spanish Academy), he took up seat L on 15 January 1996. Vargas Llosa joined the Mont Pelerin Society in 2014. He is also a member of Washington, D.C. based think tank, the Inter-American Dialogue.
Political work
Spain
He has been involved in the Spain's political arena. In February 2008 he stopped supporting the People's Party in favor of the recently created Union, Progress and Democracy, claiming that certain conservative views held by the former party are at odds with his classical liberal beliefs. His political ideologies appear in the book '' Política razonable'', written with Fernando Savater, Rosa Díez, Álvaro Pombo
Álvaro Pombo García de los Ríos (born 23 June 1939) is a Spanish poet, novelist and activist.
Born in Santander, Cantabria, he studied at the Complutense University of Madrid and received a Bachelor of Arts in philosophy at Birkbeck, Univers ...
, Albert Boadella
Albert Boadella Oncins (born 30 July 1943, in Barcelona) is a Spanish actor, playwright, director until 2012 of the company of the independent theater Els Joglars.
Biography