The Marcomannic Wars () were a series of wars lasting from about AD 166 until 180. These wars pitted the

Roman Empire The Roman Empire ruled the Mediterranean and much of Europe, Western Asia and North Africa. The Roman people, Romans conquered most of this during the Roman Republic, Republic, and it was ruled by emperors following Octavian's assumption of ...

against principally the Germanic

Marcomanni The Marcomanni were a Germanic people who lived close to the border of the Roman Empire, north of the River Danube, and are mentioned in Roman records from approximately 60 BC until about 400 AD. They were one of the most important members of th ...

and

Quadi The Quadi were a Germanic peoples, Germanic people during the Roman era, who were prominent in Greek and Roman records from about 20 AD to about 400 AD. By about 20 AD they had a kingdom centred in the area of present-day western Slovakia, north ...

and the

Sarmatian The Sarmatians (; ; Latin: ) were a large confederation of Ancient Iranian peoples, ancient Iranian Eurasian nomads, equestrian nomadic peoples who dominated the Pontic–Caspian steppe, Pontic steppe from about the 5th century BCE to the 4t ...

Iazyges The Iazyges () were an ancient Sarmatians, Sarmatian tribe that traveled westward in 200BC from Central Asia to the steppes of modern Ukraine. In , they moved into modern-day Hungary and Serbia near the Pannonian steppe between the Danube ...

; there were related conflicts with several other Germanic, Sarmatian, and Gothic peoples along both sides of the whole length of the Roman Empire's northeastern European border, the river

Danube The Danube ( ; see also #Names and etymology, other names) is the List of rivers of Europe#Longest rivers, second-longest river in Europe, after the Volga in Russia. It flows through Central and Southeastern Europe, from the Black Forest sou ...

. The struggle against the Germans and Sarmatians occupied the major part of the reign of Roman emperor

Marcus Aurelius Marcus Aurelius Antoninus ( ; ; 26 April 121 – 17 March 180) was Roman emperor from 161 to 180 and a Stoicism, Stoic philosopher. He was a member of the Nerva–Antonine dynasty, the last of the rulers later known as the Five Good Emperors ...

, and it was during his campaigns against them that he started writing his philosophical work ''

Meditations ''Meditations'' () is a series of personal writings by Marcus Aurelius, Roman Emperor from 161–180 AD, recording his private notes to himself and ideas on Stoic philosophy. Composition Marcus Aurelius wrote the 12 books of the ''Meditations'' i ...

''.

Background

Secure for many years following his ascension to power, the Roman Emperor

Antoninus Pius Titus Aelius Hadrianus Antoninus Pius (; ; 19 September 86 – 7 March 161) was Roman emperor from AD 138 to 161. He was the fourth of the Five Good Emperors from the Nerva–Antonine dynasty. Born into a senatorial family, Antoninus held var ...

never left Italy; neither did he embark on substantial conquests, all the while allowing his provincial legates to command his legions entirely. Historian Adrian Goldsworthy posits that Pius's reluctance to take aggressive military action throughout his reign may have contributed to Parthian territorial ambitions. The resulting war between Parthia and Rome lasted from 161 to 166 AD (under the joint rule of

and

Lucius Verus Lucius Aurelius Verus (; 15 December 130 – 23 January 169) was Roman emperor from 161 until his death in 169, alongside his adoptive brother Marcus Aurelius. He was a member of the Nerva–Antonine dynasty. Verus' succession together with Ma ...

) and, although it ended successfully, its

unforeseen consequence In the social sciences, unintended consequences (sometimes unanticipated consequences or unforeseen consequences, more colloquially called knock-on effects) are outcomes of a purposeful action that are not intended or foreseen. The term was po ...

s for the Empire were great. The returning troops brought with them a plague (the so-called Antonine Plague), which would eventually kill an estimated 7 to 8 million people, severely weakening the Empire. Despite the consequences of the plague, historian Kyle Harper contends that the event should not be treated as a fatal blow to the Empire. Instead, Rome's resilience was demonstrated since the Empire remained intact and Roman birth rates in the decade following the plague subsequently increased. At the same time, in Central Europe during the second-century AD, the first movements of the Great Migrations were occurring, as the

Goths The Goths were a Germanic people who played a major role in the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the emergence of medieval Europe. They were first reported by Graeco-Roman authors in the 3rd century AD, living north of the Danube in what is ...

began moving south-east from their ancestral lands at the mouth of River

Vistula The Vistula (; ) is the longest river in Poland and the ninth-longest in Europe, at in length. Its drainage basin, extending into three other countries apart from Poland, covers , of which is in Poland. The Vistula rises at Barania Góra i ...

(see Wielbark culture), putting pressure on the Germanic tribes from the north and east. As a result, Germanic tribes and other nomadic peoples launched raids south and west across Rome's northern border, particularly into

Gaul Gaul () was a region of Western Europe first clearly described by the Roman people, Romans, encompassing present-day France, Belgium, Luxembourg, and parts of Switzerland, the Netherlands, Germany, and Northern Italy. It covered an area of . Ac ...

and across the

. Whether this sudden influx of peoples with which Marcus Aurelius had to contend was the result of climate change or overpopulation remains unknown. Theories exist that the various Germanic tribes along the periphery of the Empire may have conspired to test Roman resolve as part of an attempt to bring to possible fruition

Arminius Arminius (; 18/17 BC–AD 21) was a chieftain of the Germanic peoples, Germanic Cherusci tribe who is best known for commanding an alliance of Germanic tribes at the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest in AD 9, in which three Roman legions under th ...

's dream of a future united Germanic empire. Up until these subsequent wars, the Marcomanni and Quadi generally enjoyed amicable relations and access to the Empire's wares—archaeological evidence of Roman household goods and practices illustrate such contact. As with almost all areas within the Empire's reach, the Romans aimed for a combination of military–territorial dominance, while at the same time engaging in mutually beneficial commerce. However, the Marcomanni did not want to submit to Roman territorial dominance or be annexed; instead, they sought "incorporation into the Roman Empire" with favorable economic terms—something Marcus was not willing to tolerate since it went against his policy of dividing and ruling his erstwhile competitors. Eagerness on the part of the Marcommani for terms perhaps left Marcus too comfortable to the degree that he never anticipated any initial aggressive moves from them.

History

First Marcomannic War

Initial invasions

By the early 160s AD, mounting pressures along the Rhine and Danube frontiers led several Germanic tribes to invade Roman territory. Between 162 and 165, incursions by the

Chatti The Chatti (also Chatthi or Catti) were an ancient Germanic tribe whose homeland was near the upper Weser (''Visurgis'') river. They lived in central and northern Hesse and southern Lower Saxony, along the upper reaches of that river and in ...

and Chauci into

Raetia Raetia or Rhaetia ( , ) was a province of the Roman Empire named after the Rhaetian people. It bordered on the west with the country of the Helvetii, on the east with Noricum, on the north with Vindelicia, on the south-west with Transalpine ...

and

Germania Superior Germania Superior ("Upper Germania") was an imperial province of the Roman Empire. It comprised an area of today's western Switzerland, the French Jura and Alsace regions, and southwestern Germany. Important cities were Besançon ('' Vesont ...

were repelled. In late 166, thousands of

Langobardi The Lombards () or Longobards () were a Germanic people who conquered most of the Italian Peninsula between 568 and 774. The medieval Lombard historian Paul the Deacon wrote in the ''History of the Lombards'' (written between 787 and 796) th ...

and

Lacringi The Lacringi were an ancient Germanic tribe who participated in the Marcomannic Wars during the reign of Emperor Marcus Aurelius. After the tribes' initial crossing of the Danube was pushed back, their Vandal allies, the Astingi staged another i ...

(possibly the Obii) crossed into

Pannonia Pannonia (, ) was a Roman province, province of the Roman Empire bounded on the north and east by the Danube, on the west by Noricum and upper Roman Italy, Italy, and on the southward by Dalmatia (Roman province), Dalmatia and upper Moesia. It ...

. These movements increased pressure on other tribes along the Roman frontier. The invaders were quickly defeated by local forces, including detachments from the '' Legio I Adiutrix'' under a commander named Candidus and the ''Ala Ulpia contariorum'' under Marcus Macrinius Avitus Catonius Vindex. Despite the swift victory, the incursion marked the beginning of a broader crisis. Marcus Iallius Bassus, governor of Pannonia, initiated negotiations with eleven tribes. The Marcomannic king Ballomar, a Roman client, mediated and dismissed the raid as unrepresentative. A truce was reached and the tribes withdrew, though no permanent agreement followed. As Rome was still engaged in war with Parthia, the resolution—considered a ''bellum suspensum''—was seen as a diplomatic success, though the identities of the original raiders remain uncertain.

First Roman expedition in Pannonia (168)

The Antonine Plague severely limited Roman responses in the late 160s. A punitive expedition planned by Marcus Aurelius was postponed until 168. That spring, Marcus and Lucius Verus departed Rome and established headquarters at

Aquileia Aquileia is an ancient Roman city in Italy, at the head of the Adriatic at the edge of the lagoons, about from the sea, on the river Natiso (modern Natisone), the course of which has changed somewhat since Roman times. Today, the city is small ( ...

. They reorganized defenses in Italy and Illyricum, raised the ''

Legio II Italica Legio II Italica ("Italian Second Legion") was a legion of the Imperial Roman army. Formation Originally having the ''cognomen'' ''Pia'', the legion was raised alongside III ''Italica'' by emperor Marcus Aurelius when legions sent from the Da ...

'' and ''

Legio III Italica Legio III Italica ("Italian Third Legion") was a Roman legion, legion of the Imperial Roman army founded in 165 AD by the emperor Marcus Aurelius (r. AD 161–80) for his campaign against the Marcomanni tribe. The cognomen ''Italica'' suggests tha ...

'', and crossed the Alps into Pannonia. The approach of the imperial army reportedly prompted the Marcomanni and Victuali to withdraw and pledge good conduct. The emperors returned to Aquileia for winter quarters, but in January 169, Lucius Verus suffered a fatal stroke en route and died. Marcus returned to Rome to oversee his funeral and deification.

Campaign against the Iazyges and the Germanic invasion of Italy

In autumn 169, Marcus Aurelius, accompanied by his son-in-law

Claudius Pompeianus Tiberius Claudius Pompeianus ( Greek: Πομπηιανός; 125 – 193 AD) was a politician and military commander during the 2nd century in the Roman Empire. A general under Emperor Marcus Aurelius, Pompeianus distinguished himself during Ro ...

, resumed the campaign. To finance the war effort, Marcus auctioned off imperial property—a measure historian Michael Kulikowski describes as the only viable alternative to raising taxes. The primary Roman objective was to punish the

, a Sarmatian people inhabiting the region between the Danube and

Roman Dacia Roman Dacia ( ; also known as ; or Dacia Felix, ) was a province of the Roman Empire from 106 to 271–275 AD. Its territory consisted of what are now the regions of Oltenia, Transylvania and Banat (today all in Romania, except the last regi ...

. Early in the campaign, the Iazyges killed Marcus Claudius Fronto, the governor of Lower

Moesia Moesia (; Latin: ''Moesia''; ) was an ancient region and later Roman province situated in the Balkans south of the Danube River. As a Roman domain Moesia was administered at first by the governor of Noricum as 'Civitates of Moesia and Triballi ...

. While the Roman army was preoccupied, other tribes launched opportunistic raids across the frontier. In the east, the

Costoboci The Costoboci (; , or Κιστοβῶκοι) were a Dacian tribe located, during the Roman imperial era, between the Carpathian Mountains and the river Dniester river, Dniester. During the Marcomannic Wars the Costoboci invaded the Roman Empire i ...

crossed the Danube, pillaging

Thrace Thrace (, ; ; ; ) is a geographical and historical region in Southeast Europe roughly corresponding to the province of Thrace in the Roman Empire. Bounded by the Balkan Mountains to the north, the Aegean Sea to the south, and the Black Se ...

and reaching as far south as

Eleusis Elefsina () or Eleusis ( ; ) is a suburban city and Communities and Municipalities of Greece, municipality in Athens metropolitan area. It belongs to West Attica regional unit of Greece. It is located in the Thriasio Plain, at the northernmost ...

, where they destroyed the sanctuary of the

Eleusinian Mysteries The Eleusinian Mysteries () were initiations held every year for the Cult (religious practice), cult of Demeter and Persephone based at the Panhellenic Sanctuary of Eleusis in ancient Greece. They are considered the "most famous of the secret rel ...

, but Rome reclaimed the Balkans with support from the port of Salonae in Dalmatia. Europa Germanen 50 n Chr

A more serious threat came from the Marcomanni in the west. Led by King Ballomar, they formed a coalition of Germanic tribes, crossed the Danube, and defeated a Roman force of 20,000 near

Carnuntum Carnuntum ( according to Ptolemy) was a Roman legionary fortress () and headquarters of the Roman navy, Pannonian fleet from 50 AD. After the 1st century, it was capital of the Pannonia Superior province. It also became a large city of app ...

, in what is sometimes called the Battle of Carnuntum. They then advanced south, ravaging

Noricum Noricum () is the Latin name for the kingdom or federation of tribes that included most of modern Austria and part of Slovenia. In the first century AD, it became a province of the Roman Empire. Its borders were the Danube to the north, R ...

and reaching northern Italy. The Marcomanni destroyed Oderzo (Opitergium) and besieged

, marking the first hostile incursion into Italy since the

Cimbri The Cimbri (, ; ) were an ancient tribe in Europe. Ancient authors described them variously as a Celtic, Gaulish, Germanic, or even Cimmerian people. Several ancient sources indicate that they lived in Jutland, which in some classical texts was ...

invasion of 101 BC. Titus Furius Victorinus, the

Praetorian prefect The praetorian prefect (; ) was a high office in the Roman Empire. Originating as the commander of the Praetorian Guard, the office gradually acquired extensive legal and administrative functions, with its holders becoming the Emperor's chief ai ...

, attempted to relieve the city but was defeated and likely killed, though some sources attribute his death to plague.

Roman counter-offensive and defeat of the Marcomanni

In response to the Marcomannic invasion, Marcus Aurelius reoriented Roman priorities and dispatched reinforcements from other frontiers. Command was entrusted to Tiberius Claudius Pompeianus, with the future emperor

Pertinax Publius Helvius Pertinax ( ; 1 August 126 – 28 March 193) was Roman emperor for the first three months of 193. He succeeded Commodus to become the first emperor during the tumultuous Year of the Five Emperors. Born to the son of a freed sl ...

serving under him. A new defensive zone, the ''Praetentura Italiae et Alpium'', was established to safeguard northern Italy, and the Danube fleet was strengthened.

was relieved, and by late 171, invading forces had been expelled from Roman territory. Meanwhile, Rome pursued diplomatic efforts to divide its adversaries. Peace treaties were signed with the

and

, while the

Hasdingi The Hasdingi were one of the Vandal peoples of the Roman era. The Vandals were Germanic peoples, who are believed to have spoken an East Germanic language, and were first reported during the first centuries of the Roman empire in the area which i ...

Vandals and

became Roman allies. During 172, Roman forces crossed the Danube into Marcomannic territory to push back the invasions undertaken by the various

Germanic peoples The Germanic peoples were tribal groups who lived in Northern Europe in Classical antiquity and the Early Middle Ages. In modern scholarship, they typically include not only the Roman-era ''Germani'' who lived in both ''Germania'' and parts of ...

. Although specific details are scarce, the campaign resulted in the subjugation of the Marcomanni and their allies, the Naristi (or Varistae) and the

Cotini The Cotini, sometimes spelled Gotini (because it is found in some manuscript copies of Tacitus), were a Gaulish tribe living during Roman times in the mountains approximately near the modern borders of the Czech Republic, Poland, and Slovakia. The ...

. Marcus Aurelius added the title "''Germanicus''" to his

cognomen A ''cognomen'' (; : ''cognomina''; from ''co-'' "together with" and ''(g)nomen'' "name") was the third name of a citizen of ancient Rome, under Roman naming conventions. Initially, it was a nickname, but lost that purpose when it became hereditar ...

. By 173, the Romans began to turn on the Quadi, who had violated their treaty. The campaign culminated in the so-called "Miracle of the Rain," in which the surrounded Legio XII Fulminata was saved by a sudden storm. Ancient accounts differ:

Cassius Dio Lucius Cassius Dio (), also known as Dio Cassius ( ), was a Roman historian and senator of maternal Greek origin. He published 80 volumes of the history of ancient Rome, beginning with the arrival of Aeneas in Italy. The volumes documented the ...

attributed the event to an Egyptian magician invoking Mercury, while Christian writers like

Tertullian Tertullian (; ; 155 – 220 AD) was a prolific Early Christianity, early Christian author from Roman Carthage, Carthage in the Africa (Roman province), Roman province of Africa. He was the first Christian author to produce an extensive co ...

claimed it was the result of Christian prayer. In the same year,

Didius Julianus Marcus Didius Julianus (; 29 January 133 – 2 June 193) was Roman emperor from March to June 193, during the Year of the Five Emperors. Julianus had a promising political career, governing several provinces, including Dalmatia (Roman province) ...

, commanding the Rhine frontier, repelled invasions by the

and

Hermunduri The Hermunduri, Hermanduri, Hermunduli, Hermonduri, or Hermonduli were an ancient Germanic tribe, who occupied an inland area near the source of the Elbe river, around what is now Bohemia from the first to the third century, though they have als ...

, while the Chauci raided the coast of

Gallia Belgica Gallia Belgica ("Belgic Gaul") was a Roman province, province of the Roman Empire located in the north-eastern part of Roman Gaul, in what is today primarily northern France, Belgium, and Luxembourg, along with parts of the Netherlands and German ...

. In 174, another campaign was launched against the Quadi. After deposing the pro-Roman king Furtius, they elevated Ariogaesus, whom Marcus refused to recognize. Marcus captured and exiled him to

Alexandria Alexandria ( ; ) is the List of cities and towns in Egypt#Largest cities, second largest city in Egypt and the List of coastal settlements of the Mediterranean Sea, largest city on the Mediterranean coast. It lies at the western edge of the Nile ...

. The Quadi were subdued and compelled to provide hostages, auxiliary troops, and accept Roman garrisons.Following the subjugation of the Quadi, Marcus Aurelius focused on the

, who occupied the plains along the

Tisza River The Tisza, Tysa or Tisa (see below) is one of the major rivers of Central and Eastern Europe. It was once called "the most Hungarian river" because it used to flow entirely within the Kingdom of Hungary. Today, it crosses several national bo ...

—a campaign known as the ''expeditio sarmatica''. After a series of Roman victories, the Iazyges surrendered in 175. Their king, Zanticus, returned 100,000 Roman prisoners and provided 8,000 cavalry auxiliaries, of whom 5,500 were dispatched to

Britain Britain most often refers to: * Great Britain, a large island comprising the countries of England, Scotland and Wales * The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, a sovereign state in Europe comprising Great Britain and the north-eas ...

. In recognition of the victory, Marcus adopted the title "''Sarmaticus''". Marcus may have intended to consolidate the region by forming two new provinces, '' Marcomannia'' and ''Sarmatia'', incorporating modern-day

Czech Republic The Czech Republic, also known as Czechia, and historically known as Bohemia, is a landlocked country in Central Europe. The country is bordered by Austria to the south, Germany to the west, Poland to the northeast, and Slovakia to the south ...

and

Slovakia Slovakia, officially the Slovak Republic, is a landlocked country in Central Europe. It is bordered by Poland to the north, Ukraine to the east, Hungary to the south, Austria to the west, and the Czech Republic to the northwest. Slovakia's m ...

. However, these plans were interrupted by the rebellion of

Avidius Cassius Gaius Avidius Cassius ( 130 – July 175 AD) was a Syrian Roman general and usurper. He was born in Cyrrhus, and was the son of Gaius Avidius Heliodorus, who served as ''praefectus'' or governor of Roman Egypt, and Julia Cassia Alexandra, wh ...

, governor of Syria, who declared himself emperor. Marcus marched east with his army, accompanied by auxiliary detachments from the Marcomanni, Quadi, and Naristi, under the command of Marcus Valerius Maximianus. After suppressing the revolt, Marcus returned to Rome—the first time in nearly eight years. On 23 December 176, he and his son

Commodus Commodus (; ; 31 August 161 – 31 December 192) was Roman emperor from 177 to 192, first serving as nominal co-emperor under his father Marcus Aurelius and then ruling alone from 180. Commodus's sole reign is commonly thought to mark the end o ...

celebrated a joint triumph for victories over the Germans and Sarmatians ("''de Germanis''" and "''de Sarmatis''"). The Column of Marcus Aurelius was later erected in Rome to commemorate the campaigns, modeled after Trajan's Column.

Second Marcomannic War

Although Marcus Aurelius celebrated his victories in 176, hostilities resumed the following year. In 177, the

rebelled, soon joined by the

. Marcus once again marched north to launch a second campaign, the ''secunda expeditio Germanica''. He arrived at

in August 178 and led Roman forces into hostile territory, targeting first the Marcomanni, then the Quadi between 179 and 180. In a decisive engagement near Laugaricio (modern-day

Trenčín Trenčín (, also known by other #Names and etymology, alternative names) is a List of towns in Slovakia, city in western Slovakia of the central Váh River valley near the Czech Republic, Czech border, around from Bratislava. It has a populati ...

, Slovakia), Roman forces under Marcus Valerius Maximianus defeated the Quadi. The survivors retreated deeper into

Germania Magna Germania ( ; ), also more specifically called Magna Germania (English: ''Great Germania''), Germania Libera (English: ''Free Germania''), or Germanic Barbaricum to distinguish it from the Roman provinces of Germania Inferior and Germania Super ...

, where Publius Tarrutenius Paternus, the praetorian prefect, secured another major victory. However, on 17 March 180, Marcus Aurelius died at

Vindobona Vindobona (; from Gaulish ''windo-'' "white" and ''bona'' "base/bottom") was a Roman military camp (or ) in the province of Pannonia, located on the site of the modern city of Vienna in Austria. The settlement area took on a new name in the 13 ...

(modern

Vienna Vienna ( ; ; ) is the capital city, capital, List of largest cities in Austria, most populous city, and one of Federal states of Austria, nine federal states of Austria. It is Austria's primate city, with just over two million inhabitants. ...

). His son and successor,

, showed little interest in continuing the campaign. Ignoring the counsel of his generals, Commodus negotiated peace with the Marcomanni and Quadi. He returned to Rome later that year and celebrated a triumph on 22 October 180.

Third Marcomannic War

Following Marcus Aurelius’s death, operations continued beyond the Danube. Roman forces campaigned against the

, the Buri, and the so-called "free Dacians" inhabiting the region between the Danube and

. Details of this phase are sparse, but commanders included Marcus Valerius Maximianus,

Pescennius Niger Gaius Pescennius Niger (c. 135 – 194) was a Roman usurper from 193 to 194 during the Year of the Five Emperors. He claimed the imperial throne in response to the murder of Pertinax and the elevation of Didius Julianus, but was defeated by a ...

, and

Clodius Albinus Decimus Clodius Albinus ( 150 – 19 February 197) was a Roman imperial pretender between 193 and 197. He was proclaimed emperor by the legions in Britain and Hispania after the murder of Pertinax in 193 (known as the "Year of the Five Emperors") ...

. An inscription ( CIL III 5937) refers to a campaign against the

Lugii The Lugii (or ''Lugi'', ''Lygii'', ''Ligii'', ''Lugiones'', ''Lygians'', ''Ligians'', ''Lugians'', or ''Lougoi'') were a group of tribes mentioned by Roman authors living in ca. 100 BC–300 AD in Central Europe, north of the Sudetes moun ...

or Buri (''Expeditio Burica''). These victories were evidently sufficient for Commodus to adopt the title "''Germanicus Maximus''" by 182.

Aftermath

The Marcomannic Wars revealed vulnerabilities in Rome’s northern defenses. Thereafter, half of the Empire’s legions (16 out of 33) were stationed along the Rhine and Danube. Germanic settlement increased in frontier regions including

Dacia Dacia (, ; ) was the land inhabited by the Dacians, its core in Transylvania, stretching to the Danube in the south, the Black Sea in the east, and the Tisza in the west. The Carpathian Mountains were located in the middle of Dacia. It thus ro ...

Germania Germania ( ; ), also more specifically called Magna Germania (English: ''Great Germania''), Germania Libera (English: ''Free Germania''), or Germanic Barbaricum to distinguish it from the Roman provinces of Germania Inferior and Germania Superio ...

, and parts of Italy. While such integration was not unprecedented, the scale necessitated new administrative measures. Plans were made to establish the provinces of '' Marcomannia'' and ''Sarmatia'' on the north side of the Danube, encompassing parts of modern

and

. However, not all integration was successful. A group of Germanic settlers in

Ravenna Ravenna ( ; , also ; ) is the capital city of the Province of Ravenna, in the Emilia-Romagna region of Northern Italy. It was the capital city of the Western Roman Empire during the 5th century until its Fall of Rome, collapse in 476, after which ...

rebelled and briefly seized control of the city. In response, Marcus Aurelius banned further settlement of "barbarians" in Italy and expelled those already present. Though the Germanic tribes were checked temporarily, the Marcomannic Wars foreshadowed the large-scale invasions of the 4th and 5th centuries that would contribute to the disintegration of the

Western Roman Empire In modern historiography, the Western Roman Empire was the western provinces of the Roman Empire, collectively, during any period in which they were administered separately from the eastern provinces by a separate, independent imperial court. ...

In popular culture

* Two films, '' The Fall of the Roman Empire'' (1964) and ''

Gladiator A gladiator ( , ) was an armed combatant who entertained audiences in the Roman Republic and Roman Empire in violent confrontations with other gladiators, wild animals, and condemned criminals. Some gladiators were volunteers who risked their ...

'' (2000), open with a fictionalized portrayal of a final battle of the Marcomannic Wars.

Maps

Key: Red arrows: Romans. Green arrows: Marcomanns. Italy and Adriatic Sea at bottom left corner. ; First Marcomannic War Marcomannia e Sarmatia 170 dC.jpg, Roman expedition against the Iazyges in the eastern Pannonian Plain and the great Marcomannic invasion (either 167 or 170) Marcomannia e Sarmatia 171-175 dC.jpg, Roman counter-offensive across the Danube, 171–175 ; Second Marcomannic War Marcomannia e Sarmatia 180-182 dC.jpg, Roman operations, 180–182

References

Notes

Citations

Bibliography

* *

, ''Historia romana'', Book
LXXII

* * * *

Herodian Herodian or Herodianus () of Syria, sometimes referred to as "Herodian of Antioch" (c. 170 – c. 240), was a minor Roman civil servant who wrote a colourful history in Greek titled ''History of the Empire from the Death of Marcus'' (τῆς με ...

,
History of the Roman Empire since the Death of Marcus Aurelius
'', Book I, Ch. 1–6. *

Historia Augusta The ''Historia Augusta'' (English: ''Augustan History'') is a late Roman collection of biographies, written in Latin, of the Roman emperors, their junior colleagues, Caesar (title), designated heirs and Roman usurper, usurpers from 117 to 284. S ...

, The. ''Lives of Marcus Aurelius.'
1

an

(Loeb Classical Library edition). * * * * * * * * * Robertson, Donald
''How to Think Like a Roman Emperor: The Stoic Philosophy of Marcus Aurelius''
New York: St. Martin's Press, 2019. *

External links

Marco Aurelio y la frontera del Danubio

() * ttps://web.archive.org/web/20010601145315/http://www.acutecomics.uklinux.net/gladius/germania/wars.html The Marcomannic Wars {{Authority control 160s conflicts 170s conflicts 160s in the Roman Empire 170s in the Roman Empire 180s in the Roman Empire Battles involving the Suebi

Wars War is an armed conflict between the armed forces of State (polity), states, or between governmental forces and armed groups that are organized under a certain command structure and have the capacity to sustain military operations, or betwe ...

Quadi Wars involving Germanic peoples Wars involving the Roman Empire Wars involving the Sarmatians