
A mandarin () was a
bureaucrat scholar
A scholar is a person who is a researcher or has expertise in an academic discipline. A scholar can also be an academic, who works as a professor, teacher, or researcher at a university. An academic usually holds an advanced degree or a termina ...
in the history of
China
China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. With population of China, a population exceeding 1.4 billion, it is the list of countries by population (United Nations), second-most populous country after ...
,
Korea
Korea is a peninsular region in East Asia consisting of the Korean Peninsula, Jeju Island, and smaller islands. Since the end of World War II in 1945, it has been politically Division of Korea, divided at or near the 38th parallel north, 3 ...
and
Vietnam
Vietnam, officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam (SRV), is a country at the eastern edge of mainland Southeast Asia, with an area of about and a population of over 100 million, making it the world's List of countries and depende ...
.
The term is generally applied to the officials appointed through the
imperial examination
The imperial examination was a civil service examination system in History of China#Imperial China, Imperial China administered for the purpose of selecting candidates for the Civil service#China, state bureaucracy. The concept of choosing bureau ...
system.
History and use of the term
The English term comes from the
Portuguese ''mandarim'' (spelled in
Old Portuguese as ''mandarin,'' ). The Portuguese word was used in one of the earliest Portuguese reports about China: letters from the imprisoned survivors of the
Tomé Pires embassy, most likely written in 1524, and in
Castanheda's ''História do descobrimento e conquista da Índia pelos portugueses'' (c. 1559).
Matteo Ricci, who entered mainland China from
Portuguese Macau
Macau or Macao is a special administrative regions of China, special administrative region of the People's Republic of China (PRC). With a population of about people and a land area of , it is the most List of countries and dependencies by p ...
in 1583, also said the Portuguese used the word.
The Portuguese word was thought by many to be related to ''mandador'' ("one who commands") and ''mandar'' ("to command"), from
Latin
Latin ( or ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally spoken by the Latins (Italic tribe), Latins in Latium (now known as Lazio), the lower Tiber area aroun ...
''mandare''.
Modern dictionaries, however, agree that the Portuguese borrowed it from the
Malay ''menteri'' (in
Jawi: , ), which derived from the
Sanskrit
Sanskrit (; stem form ; nominal singular , ,) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in northwest South Asia after its predecessor languages had Trans-cultural ...
''mantri'' (
Devanagari
Devanagari ( ; in script: , , ) is an Indic script used in the Indian subcontinent. It is a left-to-right abugida (a type of segmental Writing systems#Segmental systems: alphabets, writing system), based on the ancient ''Brāhmī script, Brā ...
: , meaning
counselor or minister), an agent noun formed from ''
mantra
A mantra ( ; Pali: ''mantra'') or mantram (Devanagari: मन्त्रम्) is a sacred utterance, a numinous sound, a syllable, word or phonemes, or group of words (most often in an Indo-Iranian language like Sanskrit or Avestan) belie ...
'' (, "sacred text" or literally "instrument of thought") by
suffixation with ''-in'' (). It therefore literally meant "possessor of sacred knowledge." The Sanskrit terms ultimately derive from the
Proto-Indo-European
Proto-Indo-European (PIE) is the reconstructed common ancestor of the Indo-European language family. No direct record of Proto-Indo-European exists; its proposed features have been derived by linguistic reconstruction from documented Indo-Euro ...
root *men- ("to think"), which also yielded the English words and by a similar suffixation process.
According to Malaysian scholar
Ungku Abdul Aziz, the term had its origin when the
Portuguese living in Malacca during the
Malacca Sultanate
The Malacca Sultanate (; Jawi script: ) was a Malay sultanate based in the modern-day state of Malacca, Malaysia. Conventional historical thesis marks as the founding year of the sultanate by King of Singapura, Parameswara, also known as I ...
traveled to meet with higher officials in China and referred to them with the familiar term from
Malay ''menteri'' (in
Jawi: , ), but pronounced by the
Portuguese with
Old Portuguese phonology
Phonology (formerly also phonemics or phonematics: "phonemics ''n.'' 'obsolescent''1. Any procedure for identifying the phonemes of a language from a corpus of data. 2. (formerly also phonematics) A former synonym for phonology, often pre ...
, , where the vowel ending was
nasalized and later misinterpreted to have ended with "n" and initially spelt in
Old Portuguese as ''mandarin'' then in modern
Portuguese as ''mandarim'', due to the
nasalized pronunciation of the Portuguese.
In the 16th century, before the term ''mandarin'' became widespread in European languages, the word ''Loutea'' (with various spelling variations) was often used in Europeans' travel reports to refer to Chinese scholar-officials. It is frequently used, for example, in
Galeote Pereira's account of his experiences in China in 1548–1553, which was published in Europe in 1565, or (as ''Louthia'') in
Gaspar da Cruz' ''Treatise of China'' (1569).
C. R. Boxer says the word comes from
Hokkien
Hokkien ( , ) is a Varieties of Chinese, variety of the Southern Min group of Chinese language, Chinese languages. Native to and originating from the Minnan region in the southeastern part of Fujian in southeastern China, it is also referred ...
;
IPA: , which was a common
form of address
Address terms are linguistic expressions used by a speaker to start conversation or call someone. George Yule defines address form as a word or phrase that is used for a person to whom speaker wants to talk. Address forms or address terms are so ...
for government officials in the
Zhangzhou dialect
The Zhangzhou dialects (), also rendered Changchew, Chiangchew or Changchow, are a collection of Hokkien dialects spoken in southern Fujian province (in southeast China), centered on the city of Zhangzhou. The Zhangzhou dialect proper is the sou ...
of Hokkien Chinese. This is also the main term used to refer to the scholar-officials in
Juan González de Mendoza's ''History of the Great and Mighty Kingdom of China and the Situation Thereof'' (1585), which heavily drew (directly or indirectly) on Pereira's report and Gaspar da Cruz' book, and which was the standard European reference on China in the late 16th century.
In the West, the term ''mandarin'' is associated with the concept of the scholar-official who immersed himself in poetry, literature, and
Confucian
Confucianism, also known as Ruism or Ru classicism, is a system of thought and behavior originating in ancient China, and is variously described as a tradition, philosophy, religion, theory of government, or way of life. Founded by Confucius ...
learning in addition to performing
civil service
The civil service is a collective term for a sector of government composed mainly of career civil service personnel hired rather than elected, whose institutional tenure typically survives transitions of political leadership. A civil service offic ...
duties. In modern English, ''mandarin'' is also used to refer to any (though usually a senior)
civil servant
The civil service is a collective term for a sector of government composed mainly of career civil service personnel hired rather than elected, whose institutional tenure typically survives transitions of political leadership. A civil service offic ...
, often in a satirical context, particularly in the
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain, is a country in Northwestern Europe, off the coast of European mainland, the continental mainland. It comprises England, Scotlan ...
and
Commonwealth countries
The Commonwealth of Nations, often referred to as the British Commonwealth or simply the Commonwealth, is an international association of 56 member states, the vast majority of which are former territories of the British Empire from which i ...
.
The
speech standard of the Ming and Qing empires was called "the Mandarin language" by European missionaries, translating the
Mandarin , which was current already in the Ming dynasty. The term "Mandarin" is also used to refer to modern
Standard Mandarin Chinese, which evolved out of the earlier standard, and to the broader group of
Mandarin dialects spoken across northern and southwestern China.
History
From 605 to 1905 in China, mandarins were selected by merit through the extremely rigorous
imperial examination
The imperial examination was a civil service examination system in History of China#Imperial China, Imperial China administered for the purpose of selecting candidates for the Civil service#China, state bureaucracy. The concept of choosing bureau ...
. China had civil servants since at least the
Zhou dynasty
The Zhou dynasty ( ) was a royal dynasty of China that existed for 789 years from until 256 BC, the longest span of any dynasty in Chinese history. During the Western Zhou period (771 BC), the royal house, surnamed Ji, had military ...
, but most high positions were filled by relatives of the sovereign and the
nobility
Nobility is a social class found in many societies that have an aristocracy. It is normally appointed by and ranked immediately below royalty. Nobility has often been an estate of the realm with many exclusive functions and characteristics. T ...
. It was not until the
Tang dynasty
The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, c=唐朝), or the Tang Empire, was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907, with an Wu Zhou, interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dynasty and followed ...
that
imperial examination
The imperial examination was a civil service examination system in History of China#Imperial China, Imperial China administered for the purpose of selecting candidates for the Civil service#China, state bureaucracy. The concept of choosing bureau ...
s were used for placement in the
nine-rank system, and the final form of the Mandarin emerged. Mandarins were the founders and core of the
Chinese gentry. A governmental office (for example, a central government department or a provincial civil governorate) headed by a mandarin is called a ''
yamen''. The mandarins were replaced with a modern civil service after the fall of the
Qing dynasty
The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing, was a Manchu-led Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China and an early modern empire in East Asia. The last imperial dynasty in Chinese history, the Qing dynasty was preceded by the ...
. During the Qing dynasty, the governor of a
Chinese province was signified by wearing a mandarin hat-pin made of ruby. Lower ranks were signified by hat-pins of
coral
Corals are colonial marine invertebrates within the subphylum Anthozoa of the phylum Cnidaria. They typically form compact Colony (biology), colonies of many identical individual polyp (zoology), polyps. Coral species include the important Coral ...
,
sapphire
Sapphire is a precious gemstone, a variety of the mineral corundum, consisting of aluminium oxide () with trace amounts of elements such as iron, titanium, cobalt, lead, chromium, vanadium, magnesium, boron, and silicon. The name ''sapphire ...
,
lapis lazuli
Lapis lazuli (; ), or lapis for short, is a deep-blue metamorphic rock used as a semi-precious stone that has been prized since antiquity for its intense color. Originating from the Persian word for the gem, ''lāžward'', lapis lazuli is ...
,
white jade,
gold
Gold is a chemical element; it has chemical symbol Au (from Latin ) and atomic number 79. In its pure form, it is a brightness, bright, slightly orange-yellow, dense, soft, malleable, and ductile metal. Chemically, gold is a transition metal ...
, and
silver
Silver is a chemical element; it has Symbol (chemistry), symbol Ag () and atomic number 47. A soft, whitish-gray, lustrous transition metal, it exhibits the highest electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, and reflectivity of any metal. ...
.
[Bonavia, David ''Peking'' New York:1978 Time-Life Books ''Great Cities of the World'' series Page 157]
After becoming
free of Chinese rule and setting up its own
independent monarchy, Vietnam emulated the Chinese system of mandarins in its
civil service
The civil service is a collective term for a sector of government composed mainly of career civil service personnel hired rather than elected, whose institutional tenure typically survives transitions of political leadership. A civil service offic ...
. The last mandarins in history were in service of the
State of Vietnam (1949–1955). The
Confucian examination system in Vietnam was established in 1075 under the
Lý dynasty
The Lý dynasty (, , chữ Nôm: 茹李, chữ Hán: 朝李, Vietnamese language, Vietnamese: ''triều Lý''), officially Đại Cồ Việt (chữ Hán: 大瞿越) from 1009 to 1054 and Đại Việt (chữ Hán: 大越) from 1054 to 1225, was ...
Emperor
Lý Nhân Tông and lasted until the
Nguyễn dynasty
The Nguyễn dynasty (, chữ Nôm: 茹阮, chữ Hán: 朝阮) was the last List of Vietnamese dynasties, Vietnamese dynasty, preceded by the Nguyễn lords and ruling unified Vietnam independently from 1802 until French protectorate in 1883 ...
Emperor
Khải Định (1919). Elephants were used to guard the examination halls until 1843, when the emperor said it was no longer necessary.
Korea
Korea is a peninsular region in East Asia consisting of the Korean Peninsula, Jeju Island, and smaller islands. Since the end of World War II in 1945, it has been politically Division of Korea, divided at or near the 38th parallel north, 3 ...
adopted the civil service examinations called
Gwageo under the
Goryeo
Goryeo (; ) was a Korean state founded in 918, during a time of national division called the Later Three Kingdoms period, that unified and ruled the Korea, Korean Peninsula until the establishment of Joseon in 1392. Goryeo achieved what has b ...
and
Joseon
Joseon ( ; ; also romanized as ''Chosun''), officially Great Joseon (), was a dynastic kingdom of Korea that existed for 505 years. It was founded by Taejo of Joseon in July 1392 and replaced by the Korean Empire in October 1897. The kingdom w ...
dynasties. Based on the examinations of imperial
China
China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. With population of China, a population exceeding 1.4 billion, it is the list of countries by population (United Nations), second-most populous country after ...
, the gwageo first arose in
Unified Silla, gained importance in
Goryeo
Goryeo (; ) was a Korean state founded in 918, during a time of national division called the Later Three Kingdoms period, that unified and ruled the Korea, Korean Peninsula until the establishment of Joseon in 1392. Goryeo achieved what has b ...
, and was the centrepiece of most
education in the Joseon dynasty. The tutelage provided at the
hyanggyo,
seowon
() were the most common educational institutions of Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. They were private institutions, and combined the functions of a Confucian shrine and a Confucian school. In educational terms, the were primarily occupied wit ...
, and
Sungkyunkwan was aimed primarily at preparing students for the gwageo and their subsequent careers in government service. Under Joseon law, the high office was closed to those who were not children of officials of the second full rank or higher (
Yangban) unless the candidate had passed the gwageo. Those who passed the higher literary examination monopolised the dynasty's high positions of state.
Ranks under the Qing dynasty
The Qing dynasty (1644–1912) divided the bureaucracy into civil and military positions, both having nine grades or ranks, each subdivided into primary and secondary categories.
[Beverly Jackson and David Hugus ''Ladder to the Clouds: Intrigue and Tradition in Chinese Rank ''(Ten Speed Press, 1999) pp. 134–135.] Civil appointments ranged from attendant to the emperor or a
Grand Secretary in the Forbidden City (highest) to being a
county magistrate
The county magistrate or local magistrate, known by several Chinese names, was the official in charge of the '' xian'' ("county"), the lowest level of central government in Imperial and early Republican China. The magistrate was the official ...
, prefectural tax collector, deputy jail warden, deputy police commissioner or tax examiner. Military appointments ranged from being a field marshal or chamberlain of the imperial bodyguard to a third class sergeant, corporal or a first or second class private.
In the table below, "''n''a" is shorthand for the "''n''th rank, primary" (''n''), which is a higher sub-rank than "''n''th rank, secondary" (''n''), denoted as "''n''b" in the table.
See also
*
Cabang Atas—The Chinese gentry of colonial Indonesia
*
County magistrate
The county magistrate or local magistrate, known by several Chinese names, was the official in charge of the '' xian'' ("county"), the lowest level of central government in Imperial and early Republican China. The magistrate was the official ...
—The official in charge of the ''
xian'' ("
county
A county () is a geographic region of a country used for administrative or other purposesL. Brookes (ed.) '' Chambers Dictionary''. Edinburgh: Chambers Harrap Publishers Ltd, 2005. in some nations. The term is derived from the Old French denoti ...
"), the
lowest level of central government in
Imperial and
early Republican China
*
Kapitan Cina
Kapitan Cina, also spelled Kapitan China or Capitan China or Capitan Chino (; ; ; ), was a high-ranking government position in the civil administration of colonial Indonesia, Malaya, Singapore, Borneo and the Philippines. Office holders exercis ...
—The Chinese officership or mandarinate of colonial Indonesia
*
Yangban—The traditional ruling class or gentry of dynastic Korea during the Joseon dynasty
References
External links
{{Authority control
Government of Imperial China
Government of Joseon
Nguyen dynasty
Public administration
Sanskrit words and phrases