Manchukuoan Anti Bandit Operations
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The Pacification of Manchukuo was a
Japanese Japanese may refer to: * Something from or related to Japan, an island country in East Asia * Japanese language, spoken mainly in Japan * Japanese people, the ethnic group that identifies with Japan through ancestry or culture ** Japanese diaspor ...
counterinsurgency Counterinsurgency (COIN, or NATO spelling counter-insurgency) is "the totality of actions aimed at defeating irregular forces". The Oxford English Dictionary defines counterinsurgency as any "military or political action taken against the ac ...
campaign to suppress any armed resistance to the newly established
puppet state A puppet state, puppet régime, puppet government or dummy government is a State (polity), state that is ''de jure'' independent but ''de facto'' completely dependent upon an outside Power (international relations), power and subject to its ord ...
of
Manchukuo Manchukuo, officially known as the State of Manchuria prior to 1934 and the Empire of Great Manchuria thereafter, was a puppet state of the Empire of Japan in Northeast China that existed from 1932 until its dissolution in 1945. It was ostens ...
from various
anti-Japanese volunteer armies After the Japanese invasion of Manchuria, and until 1933, large volunteer armies waged war against Japanese and Manchukuo forces over much of Northeast China. Due to Chiang Kai-shek's policy of non-resistance, the Japanese were soon able to ...
in occupied
Manchuria Manchuria is a historical region in northeast Asia encompassing the entirety of present-day northeast China and parts of the modern-day Russian Far East south of the Uda (Khabarovsk Krai), Uda River and the Tukuringra-Dzhagdy Ranges. The exact ...
and later the
Communist Communism () is a sociopolitical, philosophical, and economic ideology within the socialist movement, whose goal is the creation of a communist society, a socioeconomic order centered on common ownership of the means of production, di ...
Northeast Anti-Japanese United Army The Northeast Counter-Japanese United Army, also known as the NAJUA or Northeast Anti-Japanese United Army, was the main Counter-Japanese guerrilla army in Northeast China (Manchuria) after the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931. Its prede ...
. The operations were carried out by the
Imperial Japanese The Empire of Japan, also known as the Japanese Empire or Imperial Japan, was the Japanese nation state that existed from the Meiji Restoration on January 3, 1868, until the Constitution of Japan took effect on May 3, 1947. From 1910 to 19 ...
Kwantung Army The Kwantung Army (Japanese language, Japanese: 関東軍, ''Kantō-gun'') was a Armies of the Imperial Japanese Army, general army of the Imperial Japanese Army from 1919 to 1945. The Kwantung Army was formed in 1906 as a security force for th ...
and the collaborationist forces of the Manchukuo government from March 1932 until 1942, and resulted in a Japanese victory.


Japan seizes control

The earliest formation of large anti-Japanese partisan groups occurred in
Liaoning ) , image_skyline = , image_alt = , image_caption = Clockwise: Mukden Palace in Shenyang, Xinghai Square in Dalian, Dalian coast, Yalu River at Dandong , image_map = Liaoning in China (+all claims hatched).svg , ...
and
Jilin ) , image_skyline = Changbaishan Tianchi from western rim.jpg , image_alt = , image_caption = View of Heaven Lake , image_map = Jilin in China (+all claims hatched).svg , mapsize = 275px , map_al ...
provinces due to the poor performance of the
Fengtian Army The Northeastern Army, also known as the Fengtian Army (see terminology), was a Chinese army that existed from 1911 to 1937. General Zhang Zuolin developed it as an independent fighting force during the Warlord Era. He used the army to control ...
in the first month of the
Japanese invasion of Manchuria The Empire of Japan's Kwantung Army invaded the Manchuria region of the Republic of China on 18 September 1931, immediately following the Mukden incident, a false flag event staged by Japanese military personnel as a pretext to invade. At the ...
and to Japan's rapid success in removing and replacing the provincial authority in Fengtian and Jilin. The provincial government of Liaoning Province had fled west to
Jinzhou Jinzhou (, zh, s= , t=錦州 , p=Jǐnzhōu), formerly Chinchow, is a coastal prefecture-level city in central-west Liaoning province, China. It is a geographically strategic city located in the Liaoxi Corridor, which connects most of the la ...
. Governor
Zang Shiyi Zang Shiyi ( Hepburn: ''Zō Shikiki''; October 1884 – November 13, 1956) was a Chinese general and Governor of Liaoning Province at the time of the invasion of Manchuria in 1932. Biography Zang was born in Shenyang county of Liaoning Prov ...
remained in
Mukden Shenyang,; ; Mandarin pronunciation: ; formerly known as Fengtian formerly known by its Manchu name Mukden, is a sub-provincial city in China and the provincial capital of Liaoning province. It is the province's most populous city with a p ...
, but refused to cooperate with the Japanese in establishing a separatist and collaborationist government and was imprisoned. The Kwantung Army issued a proclamation on 21 September 1931 installing Colonel
Kenji Doihara was a Japanese general and intelligence officer. He was instrumental in the Japanese invasion of Manchuria and the establishment of Manchukuo. Born in Okayama Prefecture, Doihara became an officer in the Imperial Japanese Army and was involved ...
as Mayor of Mukden; he proceeded to rule the city with the aid of an "Emergency Committee" composed mostly of Japanese. On 23 September 1931, Lieutenant General
Xi Qia Xi Qia or Xi Xia (Hsi Hsia; ; Hepburn: ''Ki Kō''; 1883–1950) was a general in command of the Jilin Provincial Army of the Republic of China, who defected to the Japanese during the Invasion of Manchuria in 1931, and who subsequently serve ...
of the Jilin Army was invited by the Japanese to form a provisional government for Jilin Province. In Jilin, the Japanese succeeded in achieving a bloodless occupation of the capital. General Xi Qia issued a proclamation on 30 September, declaring the province independent of the
Republic of China Taiwan, officially the Republic of China (ROC), is a country in East Asia. The main geography of Taiwan, island of Taiwan, also known as ''Formosa'', lies between the East China Sea, East and South China Seas in the northwestern Pacific Ocea ...
under protection of the Japanese Army. On 24 September 1931, a provisional government was formed in Fengtian (the new name of the former Liaoning Province) with Yuan Jinhai as Chairman of the "Committee for the Maintenance of Peace and Order". In
Harbin Harbin, ; zh, , s=哈尔滨, t=哈爾濱, p=Hā'ěrbīn; IPA: . is the capital of Heilongjiang, China. It is the largest city of Heilongjiang, as well as being the city with the second-largest urban area, urban population (after Shenyang, Lia ...
, General
Zhang Jinghui Zhang Jinghui (Chang Ching-hui; zh, first=t, t=張景惠, s=张景惠, w=Chang1 Ching3-hui4, p=Zhāng Jǐnghuì; Hepburn: ''Chō Keikei''; 21 June 1871 – 1 November 1959) was a Chinese general, warlord and politician during the Warlord era. ...
also called a conference on 27 September 1931 to discuss the organization of an "Emergency Committee of the Special District", formed to achieve the secession of Harbin from China. However he was not able to act as much of the area surrounding Harbin was still held by anti-Japanese militias under Generals Ding Chao, Li Du,
Feng Zhanhai Feng Zhanhai (; 6 November 1899 – 14 September 1963), or Feng Chan-hai, was one of the leaders of the volunteer armies resisting the Japanese and the puppet state of Manchukuo in northeast China. Feng was born on November 6, 1899. At eight ...
and others. Meanwhile, in Mukden, the "North Eastern Administrative Committee," or
Self-Government Guiding Board The Self-Government Guiding Board ({{langx, ja, 自治指導部) was organized by the Imperial Japanese Army, in Mukden during the last half of September 1931 following the Mukden Incident and Invasion of Manchuria. The purpose of the Board was t ...
, was set up on 10 November under the leadership of Yu Chung-han, a prominent elder statesman of
Zhang Xueliang Zhang Xueliang ( zh, t=張學良; June 3, 1901 – October 15, 2001), also commonly known by his nickname "the Young Marshal", was a Chinese general who in 1928 succeeded his father Zhang Zuolin as the commander of the Northeastern Army. He is bes ...
's Government, who favored the
autonomy In developmental psychology and moral, political, and bioethical philosophy, autonomy is the capacity to make an informed, uncoerced decision. Autonomous organizations or institutions are independent or self-governing. Autonomy can also be ...
of Manchuria. After the Japanese
defeated Defeated may refer to: * "Defeated" (Breaking Benjamin song) * "Defeated" (Anastacia song) *"Defeated", a song by Snoop Dogg from the album ''Bible of Love'' *Defeated, Tennessee Defeated is an unincorporated community in Smith County, Tennessee ...
General Ma Zhanshan and occupied
Qiqihar Qiqihar (also spelled Tsitsihar) is the second-largest city in the Heilongjiang province of China, in the west central part of the province. The built-up (or metro) area made up of Longsha, Tiefeng and Jianhua districts had 959,787 inhabitants, w ...
on 19 November 1931, a local Self-Government Association was established in
Heilongjiang Heilongjiang is a province in northeast China. It is the northernmost and easternmost province of the country and contains China's northernmost point (in Mohe City along the Amur) and easternmost point (at the confluence of the Amur and Us ...
Province; and General Zhang Jinghui was inaugurated as Governor of the Province on 1 January 1932. After the fall of Jinzhou, the independence movement made rapid progress in northern Manchuria, where Colonel Doihara was Chief of Special Services in Harbin. General Zhang Jinghui, upon learning of the defeat of Marshal Zhang Xueliang at Jinzhou, agreed to the request of the Self-Government Guiding Board at Mukden and declared the independence of Heilongjiang Province on 7 January 1932. After General Ma Zhanshan had been driven from Qiqihar by the Japanese in the Jiangqiao Campaign he had retreated northeastward with his beaten and depleted forces and had set up his capital at
Hailun Hailun () is a city in west-central Heilongjiang province, People's Republic of China. Administratively, it is a county-level city under Suihua City. History Before the Qing dynasty Hailun was one of the earliest centrally governed counties in He ...
. There he attempted to continue to govern
Heilongjiang Heilongjiang is a province in northeast China. It is the northernmost and easternmost province of the country and contains China's northernmost point (in Mohe City along the Amur) and easternmost point (at the confluence of the Amur and Us ...
province. Colonel
Kenji Doihara was a Japanese general and intelligence officer. He was instrumental in the Japanese invasion of Manchuria and the establishment of Manchukuo. Born in Okayama Prefecture, Doihara became an officer in the Imperial Japanese Army and was involved ...
began negotiations with General Ma from his Special Service Office at
Harbin Harbin, ; zh, , s=哈尔滨, t=哈爾濱, p=Hā'ěrbīn; IPA: . is the capital of Heilongjiang, China. It is the largest city of Heilongjiang, as well as being the city with the second-largest urban area, urban population (after Shenyang, Lia ...
, hoping to get him to join the new state of Manchukuo Japan was organizing. Ma continued negotiating with Doihara, while he continued to support General Ding Chao.


Early resistance: militias, brotherhoods and bandits

The emergence of Chinese resistance to the Japanese occupation of Manchuria in the form of citizen militias, peasant brotherhoods and bandit gangs was facilitated by Japan's success in rapidly destroying
Zhang Xueliang Zhang Xueliang ( zh, t=張學良; June 3, 1901 – October 15, 2001), also commonly known by his nickname "the Young Marshal", was a Chinese general who in 1928 succeeded his father Zhang Zuolin as the commander of the Northeastern Army. He is bes ...
's government in the region. Most of the
Kwantung Army The Kwantung Army (Japanese language, Japanese: 関東軍, ''Kantō-gun'') was a Armies of the Imperial Japanese Army, general army of the Imperial Japanese Army from 1919 to 1945. The Kwantung Army was formed in 1906 as a security force for th ...
's strength during November 1931 was concentrated against General Ma Zhanshan in north-central
Heilongjiang Heilongjiang is a province in northeast China. It is the northernmost and easternmost province of the country and contains China's northernmost point (in Mohe City along the Amur) and easternmost point (at the confluence of the Amur and Us ...
, and in December and early January against Zhang Xueliang's remaining army in Jinzhou in southwestern
Liaoning ) , image_skyline = , image_alt = , image_caption = Clockwise: Mukden Palace in Shenyang, Xinghai Square in Dalian, Dalian coast, Yalu River at Dandong , image_map = Liaoning in China (+all claims hatched).svg , ...
. Away from the Japanese garrisons in cities and along the railroads, resistance units mustered openly and relatively free from molestation in late 1931–early 1932.


Militias

The frontier status of Manchuria, with endemic banditry and activities by opposing
warlord Warlords are individuals who exercise military, Economy, economic, and Politics, political control over a region, often one State collapse, without a strong central or national government, typically through informal control over Militia, local ...
s, led leading citizens and village authorities to form private militias for the protection of their property and landholdings even before the Japanese invasion of Manchuria. After the start of the Japanese occupation, these militias became partisan bands, often known as "plain-clothes" men from their lack of uniforms, and styled themselves with various names, such as the "Self-Protection Militia", "Anti-Japanese Militia" or "Chinese Volunteers". One of the first such forces to form, called the Courageous Citizens Militia, had been established by November 1931 near the estuary port of Jinzhou. These militias operated principally in southern Fengtian, which had half of Manchuria's population and the highest proportion of
Han Chinese The Han Chinese, alternatively the Han people, are an East Asian people, East Asian ethnic group native to Greater China. With a global population of over 1.4 billion, the Han Chinese are the list of contemporary ethnic groups, world's la ...
. Fengtian had come almost immediately under Japanese control, as most population centers and its capital of Mukden all lay along the tracks of the
South Manchuria Railway The South Manchuria Railway (; ), officially , Mantetsu () or Mantie () for short, was a large of the Empire of Japan whose primary function was the operation of railways on the Dalian– Fengtian (Mukden)–Changchun (called Xinjing from ...
in the S.M.R. Zone, which had been garrisoned by Kwantung Army troops since long before the conflict.


Peasant brotherhoods

"Peasant brotherhoods" were a traditional form of mutual protection by Chinese small-holders and tenant farmers. Waves of immigrants fleeing the wars of the
Warlord era The Warlord Era was the period in the history of the Republic of China between 1916 and 1928, when control of the country was divided between rival Warlord, military cliques of the Beiyang Army and other regional factions. It began after the de ...
that ravaged
north North is one of the four compass points or cardinal directions. It is the opposite of south and is perpendicular to east and west. ''North'' is a noun, adjective, or adverb indicating Direction (geometry), direction or geography. Etymology T ...
and
central China Central China () is a List of regions of China, region in China. It mainly includes the provinces of China, provinces of Henan, Hubei and Hunan. Jiangxi is sometimes also regarded to be part of this region. Central China is now officially par ...
came to Manchuria since 1926 at the rate of one million a year. These included many peasants belonging to the two predominant brotherhoods, the Red Spear Society and the
Big Swords Society The Big Swords Society () or Great Knife Society was a traditional peasant group most noted for the killing of two German Catholic missionaries at the Juye Incident in 1897 at Zhang Jia Village where the missionaries were ambushed in their sleep ...
, which aided the immigrants in establishing themselves and provided for protection against both bandits and rapacious landlords. The Red Spear Society was strongest in the hinterlands of Fengtian and countryside around Harbin. The Big Swords Society predominated in southeastern Jilin and adjoining parts of Fengtian. In 1927, the Big Swords had spearheaded an uprising triggered by the collapse of the prevailing Feng-Piao paper currency. During the rebellion the Big Swords were respected by the peasants because they did not harm or plunder the common people, but resisted the officials of the warlord
Zhang Zuolin Zhang Zuolin; courtesy name Yuting ( zh, c=雨亭, p=Yǔtíng, labels=no) and nicknamed Zhang Laogang ( zh, c=張老疙瘩, p=Zhāng Lǎo Gēda, labels=no) (March 19, 1875June 4, 1928) was a Chinese warlord who ruled Manchuria from 1916 to 1928 ...
. After the Japanese invasion, the Big Swords Society disturbed the
Jiandao Jiandao or Chientao, known in Korean as Gando or Kando, is a historical border region along the north bank of the Tumen River in Jilin, Jilin Province, Northeast China that has a high population of ethnic Koreans. The word "Jiandao", literall ...
in southeast Fengtian along the
Korea Korea is a peninsular region in East Asia consisting of the Korean Peninsula, Jeju Island, and smaller islands. Since the end of World War II in 1945, it has been politically Division of Korea, divided at or near the 38th parallel north, 3 ...
n border, and rose en masse in response to the declaration of Manchukuo on 9 March 1932. The Big Swords became the principal component of partisan resistance in this region, forming loose ties with the Anti-Japanese Volunteer Armies. The bandit leader Zhang Haitian commanded several bands of Big Swords in western Fengtian. The Big Swords in southeast Jilin were allied with
Wang Delin Wang Delin (, 1875-1938) was a bandit, soldier, and leader of the Chinese People's National Salvation Army resisting the Japanese pacification of Manchukuo. Early life Wang Delin was born in October 1875. He became a bandit in Manchuria aft ...
, and General
Feng Zhanhai Feng Zhanhai (; 6 November 1899 – 14 September 1963), or Feng Chan-hai, was one of the leaders of the volunteer armies resisting the Japanese and the puppet state of Manchukuo in northeast China. Feng was born on November 6, 1899. At eight ...
organized and trained a Big Sword Corps of 4,000 men. The Red Spear Society groups were more widespread. Members formed important centers of resistance as the war spread out through the countryside. Red Spears frequently attacked the S.M.R. Zone from the
Xinlitun Xinlitun (), or Hsin-li-t’un, is a town within Heishan County in Jinzhou prefecture, Liaoning, China. It's in the north east of the prefecture about 100 km west of Shenyang city. During the Chinese Civil war, Xinlitun and other peripheral t ...
and
Dongfeng Dongfeng is the romanization of several Chinese names of which most notably "East Wind" (). Dongfeng may refer to: People's Republic of China * Dongfeng (missile) (), series of ballistic missiles of the People's Liberation Army * Chinese series o ...
districts, close to Mukden and the
Fushun Fushun ( zh, s=, t=, p=Fǔshùn, historically Fuxi ()) is a prefecture level city in Liaoning province, China, about east of Shenyang, with a total area of , of which is the city proper. Situated on the Hun River ("muddy river"), it is one o ...
coal mines. They were led by a young officer of the Fengtian Army,
Tang Juwu Tang Juwu, Tang Chu-wu, 唐聚五,(20 April 1898 – 18 May 1939), Chinese officer, general of one of the Anti-Japanese Volunteer Armies resisting the pacification of Manchukuo. Tang Chu-wu joined the 27th Guard Brigade at the age of seventee ...
. Red Spear Society units displayed extraordinary staying power in this area; almost two years after the Mukden Incident, a group of 1,000 Red Spear members stormed Dongfeng prefecture near Mukden on 3 June 1933, long after the large Volunteer Armies had been defeated. However, both the Red Spear Society and the Big Sword Society were made up largely of uneducated and poorly trained peasants, and had a traditionalist, quasi-religious character. Members of the brotherhoods placed their faith in rustic magic and belief in the righteous character's Heavenly reward. Big Sword members claimed that their spells made them immune to bullets. Red Spear bands were in many cases led by
Buddhist Buddhism, also known as Buddhadharma and Dharmavinaya, is an Indian religion and List of philosophies, philosophical tradition based on Pre-sectarian Buddhism, teachings attributed to the Buddha, a wandering teacher who lived in the 6th or ...
monks as they went into battle, with their clothes and weapons decorated with magic inscriptions similar to that of the earlier
Boxer movement The Boxers, officially known as the Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists () among Boxer movement#Names, other names, were a Chinese secret society based in Northern and southern China, Northern China that carried out the Boxer Rebellion ...
.


Bandits

Northeastern China was a poorly-governed frontier area at the turn of the 20th century and banditry was endemic. Some were hardened criminals who pillaged for a living; others were part-time bandits who robbed only to survive when crops failed and they could not make a living on the land. As the population of Manchuria increased through the 1920s, some newcomers became squatters, then wanderers, and then outlaws. Even in the settled Fengtian province, bandits known as
Honghuzi Honghuzi () were armed Chinese robbers and bandits who operated in the areas of the eastern Russia-China borderland during the second half of the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century. Their activities extended over southeastern ...
("red beards") were common along tune
Beijing Beijing, Chinese postal romanization, previously romanized as Peking, is the capital city of China. With more than 22 million residents, it is the world's List of national capitals by population, most populous national capital city as well as ...
–Mukden railway and in the wooded southeast of the province along the Mukden-
Dandong Dandong ( zh, s=丹东 , t=丹東 , p=Dāndōng; lit. "Red East"), formerly known as Andong, is a coastal prefecture-level city in southeastern Liaoning province, in the northeastern region of the People's Republic of China. It is the largest ...
railway near
Korea Korea is a peninsular region in East Asia consisting of the Korean Peninsula, Jeju Island, and smaller islands. Since the end of World War II in 1945, it has been politically Division of Korea, divided at or near the 38th parallel north, 3 ...
. Powerful bandit gangs operated within a day's march of such major cities as Mukden and Harbin. The term "
shanlin The term shanlin () was frequently used to describe bandits in northeast China from the time of the Qing dynasty, because they knew the local wooded and mountainous terrain very well. Most operated in a fairly small district and took pains to main ...
" was often used to describe the bandits because they knew the local terrain very well. Most operated in a fairly small area and maintained the goodwill of local peasants. Government troops had great difficulty in suppressing them as would the Japanese and Manchukuo forces in later years. There was also a tradition of nationalistic banditry, dating back to the Russian invasion in July 1900 when Tsarist forces were sent to Manchuria, ostensibly to protect the Russian-owned
Chinese Eastern Railway The Chinese Eastern Railway or CER (, , or , ''Kitaysko-Vostochnaya Zheleznaya Doroga'' or ''KVZhD''), is the historical name for a railway system in Northeast China (also known as Manchuria). The Russian Empire constructed the line from 1897 ...
after the
Boxer Rebellion The Boxer Rebellion, also known as the Boxer Uprising, was an anti-foreign, anti-imperialist, and anti-Christian uprising in North China between 1899 and 1901, towards the end of the Qing dynasty, by the Society of Righteous and Harmonious F ...
.
Wang Delin Wang Delin (, 1875-1938) was a bandit, soldier, and leader of the Chinese People's National Salvation Army resisting the Japanese pacification of Manchukuo. Early life Wang Delin was born in October 1875. He became a bandit in Manchuria aft ...
, who opposed both the Russians and the
Qing The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing, was a Manchu-led Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China and an early modern empire in East Asia. The last imperial dynasty in Chinese history, the Qing dynasty was preceded by the ...
dynasty, led a major bandit force against the Russians. His career as an outlaw continued until 1917, when he agreed to join the Jilin provincial forces. For former bandits to join the regular army was quite common in the Warlord Era, as the bandits formed a convenient source of new soldiers. The converse was true as well. As the Fengtian Army retreated from the Japanese onslaught, thousands of soldiers deserted into the countryside to resume their former careers as bandits. During the
Russo-Japanese War The Russo-Japanese War (8 February 1904 – 5 September 1905) was fought between the Russian Empire and the Empire of Japan over rival imperial ambitions in Manchuria and the Korean Empire. The major land battles of the war were fought on the ...
, many bandit groups actively cooperated with the Japanese Army, providing valuable
military intelligence Military intelligence is a military discipline that uses information collection and analysis List of intelligence gathering disciplines, approaches to provide guidance and direction to assist Commanding officer, commanders in decision making pr ...
on Russian troop movements and deployment, and assisting in the securing of supplies. After December 1931, the Japanese Army began operations "for the clearance of bandits" into the Fengtian countryside beyond the South Manchuria Railway Zone in counties west of Mukden, largely due to repeated bandit attacks, robberies and kidnappings on the Dalian-Mukden trains. Fighting supported by aircraft reportedly broke up several of the bandit gangs. In consequence bandits now resented the Japanese invasion, and began retaliatory attacks against isolated Japanese communities along the Mukden-Dandong railway. Honghuzi chieftain Zhang Haitian led several thousand followers to attack the southern portion of the S.M.R. mainline. The Japanese garrison of
Niuzhuang Yingkou ( zh, s=, t=, p=Yíngkǒu) is a coastal prefecture-level city of central southern Liaoning province, People's Republic of China, on the northeastern shore of Liaodong Bay. It is the third-smallest city in Liaoning with a total area of , a ...
( zh) was encircled and attacked by "1500 Chinese bandits under Zhang Haitian," while other troops under his orders attacked in the Haicheng area. Japanese reinforcements quickly dispatched from Mukden forced Zhang's retirement, but Zhang Haitian re-emerged later as a Volunteer Army general, and was acclaimed as commander by both local Peasant Brotherhoods and Anti-Japanese militias. Many bandits were admitted into the Volunteer Armies as the Japanese conquest advanced and the partisan resistance became an increasingly popular cause.


Formation of the Anti-Japanese Volunteer Armies


Resistance in Harbin

When General
Xi Qia Xi Qia or Xi Xia (Hsi Hsia; ; Hepburn: ''Ki Kō''; 1883–1950) was a general in command of the Jilin Provincial Army of the Republic of China, who defected to the Japanese during the Invasion of Manchuria in 1931, and who subsequently serve ...
of the Jilin Army declared the province independent of the
Republic of China Taiwan, officially the Republic of China (ROC), is a country in East Asia. The main geography of Taiwan, island of Taiwan, also known as ''Formosa'', lies between the East China Sea, East and South China Seas in the northwestern Pacific Ocea ...
, military and civil authorities in the province fractured into "New Jilin" adherents of his regime and loyalist "Old Jilin" elements in opposition to it; the former predominated near the capital and the latter predominated in
Harbin Harbin, ; zh, , s=哈尔滨, t=哈爾濱, p=Hā'ěrbīn; IPA: . is the capital of Heilongjiang, China. It is the largest city of Heilongjiang, as well as being the city with the second-largest urban area, urban population (after Shenyang, Lia ...
and the rugged hinterland to the north and east. Hostilities did not commence in the Harbin area until the end of January 1932, at about the same time as the
January 28 Incident The January 28 incident or Shanghai incident (January 28 – March 3, 1932) was a conflict between the Republic of China and the Empire of Japan. It took place in the Shanghai International Settlement which was under international control. Japa ...
. General Ding Chao decided to defend the city, a key hub of rail and river communications in the north, against the approach of first General Xi Qia's "New Jilin" Army and then Japanese troops. He appealed to Harbin's Chinese residents to join his railway garrison regulars, and hundreds of volunteers joined the Jilin Self-Defence Army. The
Defense of Harbin The Defense of Harbin () occurred at the beginning of the Second Sino-Japanese War, as part of the campaign of the Invasion of Manchuria by forces of the Empire of Japan from 25 January to 4 February 1932. The Japanese took the city only after ...
at the start of February, that rallied Harbin in the way that had already formed militias in Fengtian, convinced local authorities and leading citizens in the hinterlands of Jilin that they should resist Japan's occupation of the province and form their own bands and militia units. General Ding Chao's beaten Jilin Self-Defence Army retired from Harbin to the northeast down the
Sungari River The Songhua or Sunghwa River (also Haixi or Xingal, ''Sungari'') is one of the primary rivers of China, and the longest tributary of the Amur. It flows about from Changbai Mountains on the China–North Korea border through China's northeast ...
, to join the Lower Sungari garrison of General Li Du to form the nucleus of armed opposition in north Jilin. Meanwhile, in southeast Jilin Wang Delin, a battalion commander and former bandit chieftain in the region established the
Chinese People's National Salvation Army One of the most successful volunteer armies was the Chinese People's National Salvation Army or NSA (no connection to the church known as The Salvation Army), led by a former bandit turned soldier, Wang Delin. At the time of the invasion, Wang ...
(NSA), on 8 February 1932. Numbering over 1,000 men at the time, within a few months this army became a rallying point for resistance and one of the most successful of the volunteer armies.


Foundation of Manchukuo

With General Ding Chao defeated, Ma Zhanshan agreed to defect to the new
Manchukuo Imperial Army The Manchukuo Imperial Army ( zh, s=滿洲國軍, p=Mǎnzhōuguó jūn) was the army of Manchukuo, a puppet state established by the Empire of Japan in Manchuria. Established in 1932, it was primarily involved in counterinsurgency operations agai ...
on 14 February 1932 and retained his post as Governor of
Heilongjiang Heilongjiang is a province in northeast China. It is the northernmost and easternmost province of the country and contains China's northernmost point (in Mohe City along the Amur) and easternmost point (at the confluence of the Amur and Us ...
Province in exchange for cooperating with the Japanese. On 27 February 1932, General Ding Chao offered to cease hostilities, ending official Chinese resistance in
Manchuria Manchuria is a historical region in northeast Asia encompassing the entirety of present-day northeast China and parts of the modern-day Russian Far East south of the Uda (Khabarovsk Krai), Uda River and the Tukuringra-Dzhagdy Ranges. The exact ...
. Within days Henry
Puyi Puyi (7 February 190617 October 1967) was the final emperor of China, reigning as the eleventh monarch of the Qing dynasty from 1908 to 1912. When the Guangxu Emperor died without an heir, Empress Dowager Cixi picked his nephew Puyi, aged tw ...
, the Manchurian former
emperor of China Throughout Chinese history, "Emperor" () was the superlative title held by the monarchs of imperial China's various dynasties. In traditional Chinese political theory, the emperor was the " Son of Heaven", an autocrat with the divine mandat ...
deposed in 1911, was made provisional president of the independent state of
Manchukuo Manchukuo, officially known as the State of Manchuria prior to 1934 and the Empire of Great Manchuria thereafter, was a puppet state of the Empire of Japan in Northeast China that existed from 1932 until its dissolution in 1945. It was ostens ...
by the resolution of an All-Manchuria convention at Mukden, whose members included General Ma Zhanshan flown in from the north. The next day on 1 March the provisional Manchukuo Government was established with Ma Zhanshan as its Minister of War, in addition to his post as provincial governor. On 9 March, the State of Manchukuo was inaugurated. The Chinese Government announced that not only did it not recognize the new state, but asserted that Puyi been kidnapped by the Japanese. Despite the end of official resistance with the defeat of General Ding Chao, all was not calm in Manchuria. In late February General
Wang Delin Wang Delin (, 1875-1938) was a bandit, soldier, and leader of the Chinese People's National Salvation Army resisting the Japanese pacification of Manchukuo. Early life Wang Delin was born in October 1875. He became a bandit in Manchuria aft ...
with 1,000 militia wrecked or burned 18 bridges on the
Jilin ) , image_skyline = Changbaishan Tianchi from western rim.jpg , image_alt = , image_caption = View of Heaven Lake , image_map = Jilin in China (+all claims hatched).svg , mapsize = 275px , map_al ...
-
Dunhua Dunhua (; Korean: ) is a county-level city of the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture in southeastern Jilin province, China. It has more than 480,000 inhabitants (as of 2002) and was the capital of Balhae between 742 and 756, known at the time a ...
Railway. Wang also recaptured the town of
Dunhua Dunhua (; Korean: ) is a county-level city of the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture in southeastern Jilin province, China. It has more than 480,000 inhabitants (as of 2002) and was the capital of Balhae between 742 and 756, known at the time a ...
on 20 February. In March 1932 a Japanese and Manchukuo expeditionary force sent against Wang was defeated in a series of battles around the shore of
Lake Jingpo Jingpo Lake or Lake Jingpo (; ''Pinyin'': Jìng Pō Hú) is a lake located in the upper reaches of the Mudan River among the Wanda Mountains in Ningan County, Heilongjiang Province, in the People's Republic of China. Earlier names for the la ...
losing hundreds of casualties. These battles were small in scale, with the militias using their knowledge of the local terrain to set ambushes, eventually compelling the Japanese to retreat to Harbin. That the Japanese had suffered a military defeat at the hands of a motley collection of irregular forces was a considerable political embarrassment. Japan was anxious to present Manchukuo to the world as a peaceful nation, especially as a
League of Nations The League of Nations (LN or LoN; , SdN) was the first worldwide intergovernmental organisation whose principal mission was to maintain world peace. It was founded on 10 January 1920 by the Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920), Paris Peace ...
delegation was now investigating the situation. When the news of the victories of Wang's
Chinese People's National Salvation Army One of the most successful volunteer armies was the Chinese People's National Salvation Army or NSA (no connection to the church known as The Salvation Army), led by a former bandit turned soldier, Wang Delin. At the time of the invasion, Wang ...
spread around eastern Jilin, hundreds of troops who had been reluctant members of the new Manchukuo Imperial Army defected to the NSA and estimates of its total strength in April rose from 4,500 to above 10,000 and, possibly nearer 15,000 organized in five brigades.


War of the Volunteer Armies and "Anti-bandit Operations" 1932–1933


The conflict begins

Following the establishment of Manchukuo, fires were set in the Japanese quarter of Mukden. General Honjo's train suffered an attack which was repulsed, and minor revolts began in the remoter parts of Manchuria. With the end of winter in 1932, the Japanese launched expeditions from Harbin into the interior of Jilin province, striking northeast down the Sungari River and east along the
Chinese Eastern Railway The Chinese Eastern Railway or CER (, , or , ''Kitaysko-Vostochnaya Zheleznaya Doroga'' or ''KVZhD''), is the historical name for a railway system in Northeast China (also known as Manchuria). The Russian Empire constructed the line from 1897 ...
mainline against General Ding's Jilin Self-Defence Army, (called the "Anti-Jilin Army" by the Japanese). This was the Subjugation of the Anti-Jilin Army campaign in Jilin province that lasted from March to June 1932. The campaign pushed the Jilin forces into the north and east of the Jilin province and secured control of the
Sungari River The Songhua or Sunghwa River (also Haixi or Xingal, ''Sungari'') is one of the primary rivers of China, and the longest tributary of the Amur. It flows about from Changbai Mountains on the China–North Korea border through China's northeast ...
, however, Ding's forces continued to resist, sometimes occupying towns along the eastern section of the Chinese Eastern Railway, between Harbin and the Soviet border. To the southwest another force under General Li Hai-ching headquartered at Fuyu was in control of the territory round about and southward as far as Nong'an. This force was called the Anti-Japanese Army For The Salvation Of The Country and equipped with light artillery and numerous machine guns. On 29 March 1932, Li Hai-ching's forces defeated regular troops of the Manchukuo Governor
Xi Qia Xi Qia or Xi Xia (Hsi Hsia; ; Hepburn: ''Ki Kō''; 1883–1950) was a general in command of the Jilin Provincial Army of the Republic of China, who defected to the Japanese during the Invasion of Manchuria in 1931, and who subsequently serve ...
outside the town of Nong'an, only from the capital of Shinkyo. On the previous day, a party of 100 policemen was surrounded by volunteer troops in the afternoon as they were proceeding to Nong'an in a truck convoy carrying 200,000 rounds of rifle ammunition and 50,000 trench mortar shells from the Jilin City Arsenal. All were either taken prisoner or surrendered. Deprived of their supply of ammunition, the resistance of Manchukuo forces in Nong'an dissolved next day. Nong'an was soon reported on the verge of surrender. Small Japanese detachments sent from Changchun radioed for help, after suffering heavy casualties in the fighting. Japanese forces from the east at
Dehui Dehui () is a county-level city of Jilin Province, Northeast China, it is under the administration of the prefecture-level city of Changchun, located in the middle of the Songliao Plain. It has a total population of 906,000 and a rural population ...
, tried to fight their way through to Nong'an with the support of bombers, but the defenders radio ceased broadcasting, Li's Anti-Japanese Army having captured the town. Finally the next day, the Japanese succeeded in driving Li's forces out of the town mainly as a result of airplane bombing, against which they had little defense.


The Revolt of Ma Zhanshan

Despite being appointed Minister of War in the Manchukuo government and provincial governor, Muslim General Ma Zhanshan was kept under very strict control by the Japanese military. He had to ask for approval from his Japanese advisor on all matters regarding the provincial administration. Dissatisfied with the situation, Ma raised and re-equipped his private army in secret using Japanese money and weapons. As the Governor of Heilongjiang, he used his authority to secretly transport weapons and ammunition out of the arsenals and evacuated the wives and families of his troops to safety. He then led his troops out of
Qiqihar Qiqihar (also spelled Tsitsihar) is the second-largest city in the Heilongjiang province of China, in the west central part of the province. The built-up (or metro) area made up of Longsha, Tiefeng and Jianhua districts had 959,787 inhabitants, w ...
on 1 April, stating that he was going on a military inspection tour. At
Heihe Heihe (; ; Russian language, Russian: Хэйхэ) is a prefecture-level city of northern Heilongjiang province, China, located on the Sino-Russian border, Russian border, on the south bank of the Amur River, Amur (Heilong) River, across the r ...
on 7 April, Ma announced the reestablishment of the "Heilongjiang Provincial Government" independent of Manchukuo, and reorganized his troops into 9 brigades at the beginning of May. Ma also established another eleven troops of volunteers at
Bei'an Bei'an () is a county-level city in west-central Heilongjiang province in the People's Republic of China. It is under the jurisdiction of Heihe. Bei'an was the provincial capital of Bei'an province of Manchukuo, a puppet state set up by Japan durin ...
, Gannan, Keshan, Kedong and other places. This became the Northeast Anti-Japanese National Salvation Army. Ma was also appointed nominal commander-in-chief, over all other
Anti-Japanese Volunteer Armies After the Japanese invasion of Manchuria, and until 1933, large volunteer armies waged war against Japanese and Manchukuo forces over much of Northeast China. Due to Chiang Kai-shek's policy of non-resistance, the Japanese were soon able to ...
that were forming in various locations, and commanded a total fighting force of about 300,000 men at peak strength according to Japanese estimates. After sending some troops to aid General Ding Chao in the lower
Sungari River The Songhua or Sunghwa River (also Haixi or Xingal, ''Sungari'') is one of the primary rivers of China, and the longest tributary of the Amur. It flows about from Changbai Mountains on the China–North Korea border through China's northeast ...
area, Ma struck out toward Harbin with six infantry and cavalry regiments, 20 field
artillery Artillery consists of ranged weapons that launch Ammunition, munitions far beyond the range and power of infantry firearms. Early artillery development focused on the ability to breach defensive walls and fortifications during sieges, and l ...
pieces and a small squadron of seven planes. His units set ambushes along major roads and badly mauled Manchukuo and Japanese troops. When he was blocked from reaching Harbin, he turned southwest towards
Qiqihar Qiqihar (also spelled Tsitsihar) is the second-largest city in the Heilongjiang province of China, in the west central part of the province. The built-up (or metro) area made up of Longsha, Tiefeng and Jianhua districts had 959,787 inhabitants, w ...
. At the same time northwest of Harbin, irregular war began to flare up in the countryside of Heilongjiang province. Manchukuo troops mutinied, briefly holding the transportation hubs along the Qiqihar- Keshan and Harbin-
Hailun Hailun () is a city in west-central Heilongjiang province, People's Republic of China. Administratively, it is a county-level city under Suihua City. History Before the Qing dynasty Hailun was one of the earliest centrally governed counties in He ...
railways, or departing to join the forces of General Ma. Mounted bandits appeared by the hundreds to loot towns on the Chinese Eastern Railway mainline west of Harbin. Other partisans rose up in the
Taonan Taonan (), formerly Tao'an County (), is a county-level city of 100,000 in the northwest of Jilin province in Northeast China. It is under the administration of Baicheng prefecture-level city. Administrative Divisions There are 6 subdistricts ...
region, disrupting service on the Taonan-Qiqihar railway. To restore control, the Japanese Army launched the Ma Chan-shan Subjugation campaign from April through July 1932. The Japanese struck northwards up the Harbin-Hailun and Qiqihar-Keshan railways, driving back General Ma's forces, and setting out from the railheads in powerful pincer movements to encircle groups of Ma's troops. General Ma reported on 8 June that he had decided to adopt
guerrilla warfare Guerrilla warfare is a form of unconventional warfare in which small groups of irregular military, such as rebels, partisans, paramilitary personnel or armed civilians, which may include recruited children, use ambushes, sabotage, terrori ...
tactics, retaining only one detachment of 1,000 soldiers as his personal command as a regular force. All other units were dispersed as small groups of partisans, roving countryside on horseback. By July, General Ma Zhanshan's troops were seriously depleted in the resulting battles, and only small numbers of men were able to break through the tight Japanese encirclement. General Ma Zhanshan commanded 3,500 guerilla fighters against the Japanese, conducting attacks such as a raid on the Manchukuo treasury, attacking Changchun, the capital, and hijacking from an airfield six Japanese planes. General Ma caused so much trouble to the Japanese, that when his equipment and horse were captured, the Japanese presented them to the Emperor in Tokyo, assuming that he was dead. They were enraged to discover that he had survived and escaped. After General Ma escaped, his men kept up the fight, terrorizing the Japanese invaders. They seized 350 Japanese and Korean hostages and held them for weeks and kidnapped foreigners such as a British General's son and an American executive's wife.


Revolts of the Volunteer Armies south of Harbin

In late April, the Chinese Eastern Railway was cut south of Harbin, by an estimated 3,000 Chinese soldiers under General Li Hai-ching. Li's troops ripped up the railway tracks, tore down telegraph wires, and captured a train from Harbin. They looted the train and dispersed before Japanese troops arrived on the scene. In eastern Manchukuo,
Wang Delin Wang Delin (, 1875-1938) was a bandit, soldier, and leader of the Chinese People's National Salvation Army resisting the Japanese pacification of Manchukuo. Early life Wang Delin was born in October 1875. He became a bandit in Manchuria aft ...
's troops set three minor railway stations afire and gutted the city of
Suifenhe Suifenhe () is a county-level city in southeastern Heilongjiang province, People's Republic of China, located where the former Chinese Eastern Railway crosses the border with Russia's town of Pogranichny, Primorsky Krai. In January 2014, Sui ...
near the Russian border. Drawing more troops from the seemingly quiet southern Fengtian province, the Japanese launched the Li Hai-ching Subjugation Operation in May 1932. A mixed force of Japanese and Manchukuo troops attacked Li Hai-ching's guerrillas in southern Heilongjiang province from three directions, rapidly dispersing them and securing control of the region. However, on 21 April 1932, with Japanese forces concentrated in the north,
Tang Juwu Tang Juwu, Tang Chu-wu, 唐聚五,(20 April 1898 – 18 May 1939), Chinese officer, general of one of the Anti-Japanese Volunteer Armies resisting the pacification of Manchukuo. Tang Chu-wu joined the 27th Guard Brigade at the age of seventee ...
in eastern Liaoning judged that the time was ripe for his army to go on the offensive. Tang Juwu started the revolt in Huanren and then captured Xinbin and
Kuandian Kuandian Manchu Autonomous County (; Manchu: ; Möllendorff: ''kuwandiyan manju beye dasangga siyan''), is a county of eastern Liaoning province, China, bordering North Korea to the southeast and Jilin in the northeast. It is under the administra ...
. Tang's army, numbering 20,000 men surrounded the Japanese
Tonghua Tonghua ( zh, s=通化 , p=Tōnghuà) is a prefecture-level city in the south of Jilin province, People's Republic of China. It borders North Korea's Chagang Province to the south and southeast, Baishan to the east, Jilin City to the north, ...
garrison. In reaction the Manchukuo police and detachments of the Manchukuo Army attempted to relieve the siege in the First Dongbiandao Clearance. On 8 May he captured Liuhe and took Tonghua soon after. However his force continued as a threat in the region to the east of
Mukden Shenyang,; ; Mandarin pronunciation: ; formerly known as Fengtian formerly known by its Manchu name Mukden, is a sub-provincial city in China and the provincial capital of Liaoning province. It is the province's most populous city with a p ...
and communications with
Korea Korea is a peninsular region in East Asia consisting of the Korean Peninsula, Jeju Island, and smaller islands. Since the end of World War II in 1945, it has been politically Division of Korea, divided at or near the 38th parallel north, 3 ...
. Based in the Dongbiandao area, his army fought with both the Japanese Kwantung Army stationed in Mukden and the Manchukuo Fengtian Army. Although all major cities had been lost, the volunteer armies gained a new lease of life during the summer of 1932 and reached their greatest strength. Also in May,
Feng Zhanhai Feng Zhanhai (; 6 November 1899 – 14 September 1963), or Feng Chan-hai, was one of the leaders of the volunteer armies resisting the Japanese and the puppet state of Manchukuo in northeast China. Feng was born on November 6, 1899. At eight ...
and a sizeable detachment of the Jilin Self-Defence Army of 15,000 men in western Jilin province cut communications to the south and east of Harbin. In response the Japanese and Manchukuo armies launched two campaigns to clear Feng's force out of the countryside. From June to July 1932 the Feng Chan-hai Subjugation Operation cleared the Shuangcheng, Acheng, Yushu,
Wuchang Wuchang is one of 13 urban District (China), districts of the prefecture-level city of Wuhan, the capital of Hubei, Hubei Province, China. It is the oldest of the three cities that merged into modern-day Wuhan, and stood on the right (southea ...
, and
Shulan Shulan ( zh, s=舒兰 , t=舒蘭 , p=Shūlán) is a county-level city in northern Jilin province, Northeast China. It falls under the administration of Jilin City, to the south-southwest. Administrative divisions Shulan is divided into 5 subd ...
districts south of Harbin, of Feng's Anti-Japanese forces and forced Feng to retreat to the west. On 20 June, Feng Zhanhai captured
Yushu, Jilin Yushu () is a county-level city of Jilin Province, Northeast China, it is under the administration of the prefecture-level city of Changchun. It is more than to the northeast of central Changchun, and around south of Harbin. The name of the plac ...
, but after a fierce Japanese counterattack, he was forced to retreat. He then arrived at
Wuchang, Heilongjiang Wuchang () is a county-level city of Heilongjiang Province, Northeast China, it is under the administration of the prefecture-level city of Harbin, it borders Acheng District to the north, Shangzhi to the northeast, Shuangcheng District to the no ...
, on 4 July and the Japanese defenders fled. On 13 July, Feng Zhanhai captured
Shulan Shulan ( zh, s=舒兰 , t=舒蘭 , p=Shūlán) is a county-level city in northern Jilin province, Northeast China. It falls under the administration of Jilin City, to the south-southwest. Administrative divisions Shulan is divided into 5 subd ...
. Massive floods along the Nonni and Sungari Rivers inundated some round Harbin throughout August, providing a crucial breathing spell to Volunteer Army bands in the plains and lower Sungari, as Japanese operations in the area had to halt until the waters subsided. The Japanese concentrated forces northwest of Harbin against General Ma Zhanshan in spring and summer of 1932, which permitted an escalation of partisan activity in Jilin and Fengtian provinces, which culminated in simultaneous attacks on cities throughout the South Manchurian Railway Zone when the August floods both halted Japanese operations based on Harbin, and isolated the troops engaged on them. However, the floods also ruined crops not already destroyed in the war, putting more pressure on the Volunteer Armies, which foraged for their sustenance in the countryside.


Defeat of the Volunteer Armies

Mongolian bandit forces were able to attack the Ssutao ( Siping -
Taonan Taonan (), formerly Tao'an County (), is a county-level city of 100,000 in the northwest of Jilin province in Northeast China. It is under the administration of Baicheng prefecture-level city. Administrative Divisions There are 6 subdistricts ...
) Railway where it was isolated by the flooding in August, and took the small town of
Tongyu Tongyu () is a county in the northwest of Jilin province, China, bordering Inner Mongolia to the south and west. It is the southernmost county-level division of the prefecture-level city of Baicheng, and has a population of 350,000 residing in an a ...
. On August 20 a Manchukuo relieving force was sent on the Mongolian Bandit Subjugation Operation and after a short battle Tonyu was recovered on 31 August 1932. On 2 September 1932 during the Second Feng Chan-hai Subjugation operation a force of the Manchukuo Jilin Guard Army cornered Feng Zhanhai's Volunteer Army retreating from the previous subjugation operation. Although surrounded, over half the guerrillas were able to slip through the encirclement and make good their escape to Jehol.


Su Bingwen's revolt

General Su Bingwen the " Barga District" at the extreme west of Heilongjiang on the Soviet frontier, had kept his isolated command beyond the
Greater Khingan The Greater Khingan Range or Da Hinggan Range ( zh, s=大兴安岭, t=大興安嶺, p=Dà Xīng'ān Lǐng; IPA: ) is a volcanic mountain range in the Inner Mongolia region of Northeast China. It was originally called the Xianbei Mountains, whi ...
mountains, free any of the fighting or any Japanese troops, doing nothing in support of either Manchukuo or Ma Zhanshan. As a consequence the farmers settled along the Chinese Eastern Railway mainline west of Qiqihar had remained undisturbed by warfare and were able to get in their harvests. On 27 September 1932 when the Japanese turned their attention south to restore the security of the vital facilities in the southern Manchukuo which were endangered by the activities of the Volunteer Armies, General Su Bingwen's soldiers staged a mutiny, seizing hundreds of Japanese civilians and isolated military personnel as hostages. The mutineers, calling themselves the Heilongjiang National Salvation Army moved eastwards aboard trains to join General Ma Zhanshan in recapturing the provincial capital of Qiqihar. Ma Zhanshan had emerged onto the plains again from his shelter in the
Lesser Khingan Lesser Khingan ( zh, c=小兴安岭, p=Xiǎo Xīng'ān Lǐng; , ''Maly Khingan'') is a mountain range in China's Heilongjiang province and the adjacent parts of Russia's Amur Oblast and Jewish Autonomous Oblast.
mountains along the
Amur River The Amur River () or Heilong River ( zh, s=黑龙江) is a perennial river in Northeast Asia, forming the natural border between the Russian Far East and Northeast China (historically the Outer and Inner Manchuria). The Amur ''proper'' is ...
after the Japanese had defeated his forces in the north. He arrived in Longmen County in September and joined Su Bingwen's mutineers for a joint campaign. However food shortages were particularly acute in Heilongjiang after the devastation wrought by the August flooding. The Heilongjiang troops and Ma's Army were being supplied with provisions commandeered unwillingly from local farmers, and soon there was nothing left to seize. In mid-October, Ma's forces captured
Anda Anda or ANDA may refer to: Places China * Anda, Heilongjiang, a city in Heilongjiang, China * Anda railway station, a railway station in Anda, China Iran * Anda, Iran, a village in Fars Province, Iran Norway * Anda, Norway, an island in Øksnes ...
west of Harbin on the C. E. R. mainline, forced the merchants of the city to give 50,000 dollars to them, and confiscated every horse they could find. On 26 October Laha, a town north of Qiqihar, was attacked by Ma's forces with their remaining artillery in support. The Japanese garrison was subjected to a long, intensive, and well-directed bombardment. For eight days the Japanese garrison commanded by a Captain Hayashi at Taian on the Qiqihar- Koshen railway was encircled by some 4,000 Volunteers, until it succeeded in repulsing them on 28 October following severe fighting, in which twenty eight Japanese (including Captain Hayashi) were killed or wounded. A cavalry detachment, the Kawase Detachment of 59 horsemen sent out toward Taian, disappeared on the frosted prairie. On 8 November, the sole survivor, a Sergeant Iwakami, arrived in Qiqihar to tell how the detachment had been annihilated outside Taian. In reaction, the Japanese organized the Su Ping-wei Subjugation Campaign from November to December 1932. Nearly 30,000 Japanese and Manchukuo soldiers including the Japanese 14th Infantry Division and
Mongol Mongols are an East Asian ethnic group native to Mongolia, China (Inner Mongolia and other 11 autonomous territories), as well as the republics of Buryatia and Kalmykia in Russia. The Mongols are the principal member of the large family of M ...
cavalrymen of the Manchukuo Xing'an Army directed a fierce campaign against Su and Ma's troops. On 28 November 1932, Japanese 14th division attacked Ma Zhanshan and Su Bingwen around Qiqihar. Japanese planes bombed Ma Zhanshan's headquarters in
Hailar Hailar District, formerly a county-level city, is an urban District (China), district that serves as the seat of the prefecture-level city Hulunbuir in northeastern Inner Mongolia, China. Hulunbuir, due to its massive size, is a city in administr ...
. By 3 December, the Japanese took Ma Zhanshan's Hailar headquarters. And the following day, after heavy fighting, Ma Zhanshan and Su Bingwen with the remnants of their forces fled Hailar for the Soviet border and entered Russian territory on 5 December. Most of their troops were later transferred to
Rehe Chengde, formerly known as Jehol and Rehe, is a prefecture-level city in Hebei province, situated about northeast of Beijing. It is best known as the site of the Mountain Resort, a vast imperial garden and palace formerly used by the Qing em ...
.


Final Operations in eastern Manchukuo

Diverted from their preparations for invading Jehol province by the widespread partisan activity by the forces of Ma and Su in Heilongjiang, Japanese forces concentrated to the west. The forces of Feng Zhanhai and Wang Delin in Fengtian and Jilin were thus free to attack the railroads and other places in the South Manchuria Railway Zone and managed to briefly occupy the capital of Jilin province. On 10 September 1932, at
Dehui Dehui () is a county-level city of Jilin Province, Northeast China, it is under the administration of the prefecture-level city of Changchun, located in the middle of the Songliao Plain. It has a total population of 906,000 and a rural population ...
on the C. E. R. spur-line between Changchun and Harbin, 1,000 bandits drove out the Manchukuo garrison. They then looted the town for two hours as fighting went on. The garrison was able to rally and counterattack and repulse their opponents. On a raid on 11 September, Volunteer Army partisans derailed a train between Changchun and Harbin and robbed the survivors, kidnapping some for ransom, including five Japanese. On 15 September, a Red Spear militia not from the area, but merely passing through
Pingdingshan Pingdingshan ( zh, s=平顶山, t=平頂山, p=Píngdǐngshān), also known as Eagle City ( zh, s=鹰城, p=Yīngchéng, t=鷹城), is a prefecture-level city in central Henan province, China. It had 4,904,701 inhabitants at the 2010 census who ...
village, fired on Japanese soldiers and later attacked the Japanese garrison in the nearby industrial city of
Fushun Fushun ( zh, s=, t=, p=Fǔshùn, historically Fuxi ()) is a prefecture level city in Liaoning province, China, about east of Shenyang, with a total area of , of which is the city proper. Situated on the Hun River ("muddy river"), it is one o ...
. The next day in retaliation Japanese soldiers and police in tracking the rebels as they fled back through the villages, assumed all who were in the vicinity either to be members of the militia or their confederates and punished them, by burning homes and
summary execution In civil and military jurisprudence, summary execution is the putting to death of a person accused of a crime without the benefit of a free and fair trial. The term results from the legal concept of summary justice to punish a summary offense, a ...
, bayoneting and machine-gunning village residents and killing some 3,000 men, women, and children, leaving only one survivor in the whole village. This became known as the
Pingdingshan Massacre The Pingdingshan village massacre was a massacre committed by the Imperial Japanese Army in the village of Pingdingshan on September 16, 1932. Massacre On September 15, Anti-Japanese Red Spear militia, not from the area but passing through Ping ...
. Meanwhile, in October to the west, a Manchukuo and Japanese force in the Li Hai-ching Subjugation, confronted the 3,000 man Li Hai-ching guerrilla force that had returned to attack Manchukuo and Japanese forces in south Heilongjiang province and forced their retreat into Jehol province. Finally the Japanese took the initiative in the east. In mid-October, the Japanese estimated Tang Juwu's forces in the fourteen counties of south and eastern Fengtian at about 30,000 men. On 11 October 1932, the Japanese counterattacked in the Second Dongbiandao Subjugation. The Fengtian Army of seven brigades supported a Japanese force of two cavalry brigades and one mixed brigade that spearheaded the clearance of guerrillas from the Dongbiandao district. They attacked Tang Juwu's forces in the Tonghua and
Huanren Huanren Manchu Autonomous County (, Manchu: ; Möllendorff: ''huwanren manju beye dasangga siyan''), formerly Huairen County (), is a county under the administration of Benxi City, in eastern Liaoning province, China, bordering Jilin to the east. ...
area. Tang Juwu broke through the Japanese encirclement to the west. On the 16th, the Japanese took over Tonghua, and on the 17th, Huanren, suffering casualties of 500 men while killing 270 and capturing 1,000. Following that operation up from October to November 1932 in the Shenyang, Changchun, Jilin Subjugation the Japanese swept through the territory between Mukden, Changchun and Jilin, and forcing the Chinese guerrilla forces of Wang Delin to retreat towards
Huinan Huinan County () is a county of southwestern Jilin province, China. It is under the administration of Tonghua City, with a population of 350,000 residing in an area of . Administrative divisions There are 10 towns and one ethnic township. Towns ...
and Siping. From 6 November 20 to November, 1932, the Manchukuo Army launched the Ki Feng - Lung District Subjugation Operation clearing the Ki Feng-lung district of guerrillas with 5,000 Manchukuo soldiers consisting of a battalion of the
Manchukuo Imperial Guards The Manchukuo Imperial Guards (, ) were an elite unit (special operations capable) of the Manchukuo armed forces created in 1933. It was charged with the protection of the Kangde Emperor, the imperial household, and senior members of the Manchu ...
and the 2nd Cavalry Regiment of the Fengtian Army and a Cavalry detachment of the Jilin Army. The Third Dongbiandao Subjugation operation, from 22 November to 5 December 1932, was launched to finally clear the remnants of Tang Juwu's guerrilla forces that had regrouped after the Second Dongbiandao Subjugation campaign. The Manchukuo force was made up of a unit of
Manchukuo Imperial Guards The Manchukuo Imperial Guards (, ) were an elite unit (special operations capable) of the Manchukuo armed forces created in 1933. It was charged with the protection of the Kangde Emperor, the imperial household, and senior members of the Manchu ...
as well as locally raised militia forces from the Yalu, Central and Shenghai districts totaling 5,000 men. The operation was a success and led to the capture of 1,800 "bandits", some of whom were later recruited into the Manchukuo Army. On 24 December 1932, the Japanese 10th Division attacked guerrilla forces to the north of
Mudanjiang River Mudanjiang (; Manchu: ''Mudan bira''), alternately romanized as Mutankiang, is a prefecture-level city in the southeast part of Heilongjiang province, People's Republic of China. It was called ''Botankou'' under Japanese occupation. It serves as ...
. 5 January 1933, General Kuan Chang-ching was forced to surrender his Volunteers at
Suifenhe Suifenhe () is a county-level city in southeastern Heilongjiang province, People's Republic of China, located where the former Chinese Eastern Railway crosses the border with Russia's town of Pogranichny, Primorsky Krai. In January 2014, Sui ...
on the Soviet frontier. On 7 January 1933, Japanese took over
Mishan Mishan () is a county-level city in the southeast of Heilongjiang Province, China, bordering Russia's Primorsky Krai to the south and southeast. It is under the jurisdiction of the prefecture-level city of Jixi. History Early medieval histor ...
. On 9 January 1933, Li Du's guerrilla forces crossed Ussuri River into the
USSR The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR), commonly known as the Soviet Union, was a List of former transcontinental countries#Since 1700, transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 until Dissolution of the Soviet ...
. On 5 January, the Japanese began assaulting
Dongning, Heilongjiang Dongning () is a county-level city of southeastern Heilongjiang province, China. It is under the jurisdiction of the prefecture-level city of Mudanjiang Mudanjiang (; Manchu language, Manchu: ''Mudan bira''), postal romanization, alternately ro ...
and on 13 January, Wang Delin and the remaining militias were forced to retreat from Dongning to the Soviet Union By the end of February 1933, most of the large Volunteer Armies had dispersed into small guerrilla bands or had fled to the Soviet Union.


Aftermath

This was not the end of the Volunteer Armies. Some fought on as small guerrilla units, frequently called "shanlin". The bandit experiences of some of the commanders stood them in good stead for they were adept at surviving in the Manchurian winters and adapted to guerrilla warfare and they continued to harass the Japanese and Manchukuo forces for many years. The Japanese were forced to tie up considerable military forces and assets to continuously sweep the region with company-sized patrols for many months. Occasionally they organized larger operations. After a resurgence of activity the Japanese were forced to organize the large-scale Jilin Province Subjugation operation in October and November 1933. It involved 35,000 men of the Manchukuo Army in an attempt to clear the province of Jilin entirely of guerrillas. The Manchukuo force included the whole of the Jilin Army as well as the elements of the Heilongjiang Army, Xing'an Army and the Xinjin Independent Cavalry Detachment. The operation was deemed a success and led to the capture and death of a number of anti-Japanese commanders. Of the forces that fled Manchukuo, Feng Zhanhai and his men went on to serve against the Japanese
Operation Nekka The defense of the Great Wall ( zh, t=長城抗戰, s=长城抗战, p=Chángchéng Kàngzhàn) (January 1 – May 31, 1933) was a battle, campaign between the armies of Nationalist government, Republic of China and Empire of Japan, which took pla ...
in
Rehe Chengde, formerly known as Jehol and Rehe, is a prefecture-level city in Hebei province, situated about northeast of Beijing. It is best known as the site of the Mountain Resort, a vast imperial garden and palace formerly used by the Qing em ...
and later with
Feng Yuxiang Feng Yuxiang (; ; 6 November 1882 – 1 September 1948), courtesy name Huanzhang (焕章), was a Chinese warlord and later general in the National Revolutionary Army. He served as Vice Premier of the Republic of China from 1928 to 1930. A ...
's
Chahar People's Anti-Japanese Army The Chahar People's Counter-Japanese Army () consisted mostly of former Northwestern Army units under Feng Yuxiang, troops from Fang Zhenwu's Resisting Japan and Saving China Army, remnants of the provincial forces from Rehe, Counter-Japanese ...
in Chahar 1933. His forces were incorporated into the
National Revolutionary Army The National Revolutionary Army (NRA; zh, labels=no, t=國民革命軍) served as the military arm of the Kuomintang, Chinese Nationalist Party (Kuomintang, or KMT) from 1924 until 1947. From 1928, it functioned as the regular army, de facto ...
as a division and fought in the
Second Sino-Japanese War The Second Sino-Japanese War was fought between the Republic of China (1912–1949), Republic of China and the Empire of Japan between 1937 and 1945, following a period of war localized to Manchuria that started in 1931. It is considered part ...
. Tang Juwu fought against the Japanese in Rehe, and was made head of the Northeast Anti-Japanese Volunteer 3rd Corps. After the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War, he was assigned to operate behind the Japanese lines where he was killed on May 18, 1939. After his retreat to the Soviet Union, Su Bingwen served the Kuomintang government as a military board member and military inspection group director during the Second Sino-Japanese War. Out of favor with Chiang kai-Shek, it was not until after the Marco Polo Bridge Incident that Ma Zhanshan was made commander of the Northeastern Advance Force in charge guerrilla operations in the four northeastern provinces of Liaoning, Jilin, Heilongjiang and Rehe. Ma led his troops to fight the Japanese in Chahar, Suiyuan, Datong and Shanxi areas and he cooperated with Fu-Zuyi's troops in the defense of
Suiyuan Suiyuan () was a historical province of China. Suiyuan's capital was Guisui (now Hohhot). The abbreviation was (pinyin: ). The area Suiyuan covered is approximated today by the prefecture-level cities of Hohhot, Baotou, Wuhai, Ordos, Bayan ...
. Ma was appointed as chairman of the government of Heilongjiang in August 1940, and continued to hold that position to the end of the war. Of the Volunteer guerrilla leaders remaining in Manchukuo,
Wang Fengge Wang Fengge (; 1895 – 1937) was born in Tonghua, Jilin, China. In 1914 Wang Fengge graduated from the Donghua Normal School, and had studied traditional martial arts as a young man. In 1922 he was made a company commander in a brigade of the Nort ...
was captured in 1937 and executed, along with his wife and child.
Wu Yicheng Wu Yicheng (; 1887 – 1949), one of Wang Delin Wang Delin (, 1875-1938) was a bandit, soldier, and leader of the Chinese People's National Salvation Army resisting the Japanese pacification of Manchukuo. Early life Wang Delin was born in O ...
fought on with a small band of followers until 1937. Although
Kong Xianrong Kong Xianrong ({{zh, t=孔憲榮, s=孔宪荣, p=Kǒng Xiànróng; 1881-May 23, 1948), one of Wang Delin's companions who had been with him for many years as a bandit, was made one of Wang's company commanders along with Wu Yicheng, when Wang w ...
, Wang Delin's deputy, gave up the struggle, his wife and another of Wang Delin's subordinates, Yao Zhenshan, led a small band which fought on until the spring of 1941 when it was annihilated.


Communists and the Northeast Anti-Japanese United Army 1934-1942


Early Conflict with the Anti Japanese Armies

After the invasion of Manchuria in 1931, the
Chinese Communist Party The Communist Party of China (CPC), also translated into English as Chinese Communist Party (CCP), is the founding and One-party state, sole ruling party of the People's Republic of China (PRC). Founded in 1921, the CCP emerged victorious in the ...
organized a number of small anti-Japanese guerrilla units dedicated both to resistance against the Japanese and also to
social revolution Social revolutions are sudden changes in the structure and nature of society. These revolutions are usually recognized as having transformed society, economy, culture, philosophy, and technology along with but more than just the political system ...
. However these units were far smaller than the various
Anti-Japanese Volunteer Armies After the Japanese invasion of Manchuria, and until 1933, large volunteer armies waged war against Japanese and Manchukuo forces over much of Northeast China. Due to Chiang Kai-shek's policy of non-resistance, the Japanese were soon able to ...
which had been raised, based on patriotic appeal. When the first Volunteer Armies were organized, the Communist Party was initially completely hostile, mistrusting their motives and leadership. They also feared that the Volunteer Armies would give the Japanese a pretext for attacking the
Soviet Union The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR), commonly known as the Soviet Union, was a List of former transcontinental countries#Since 1700, transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 until Dissolution of the Soviet ...
. The Communist Party in northeast China even issued an appeal for the volunteers to kill their officers and join the Communists in a social revolution. Despite Party disapproval, some Communist Party members joined or rendered assistance to the various Anti-Japanese Volunteer Armies, and some rose to senior positions within the volunteer forces. They were particularly influential in
Wang Delin Wang Delin (, 1875-1938) was a bandit, soldier, and leader of the Chinese People's National Salvation Army resisting the Japanese pacification of Manchukuo. Early life Wang Delin was born in October 1875. He became a bandit in Manchuria aft ...
's
Chinese People's National Salvation Army One of the most successful volunteer armies was the Chinese People's National Salvation Army or NSA (no connection to the church known as The Salvation Army), led by a former bandit turned soldier, Wang Delin. At the time of the invasion, Wang ...
(NSA), where Li Yanlu and
Zhou Baozhong Zhou Baozhong (; 1902–1964) was a commander of the 88th Separate Rifle Brigade and Northeast Anti-Japanese United Army resisting the pacification of Manchukuo by the Empire of Japan. After the Chinese Civil War he was made Vice Governor of Yu ...
became high-ranking officers. At first the Party severely criticized their conduct. However, the Communists eventually had to face the fact that their current propaganda made them almost irrelevant to the anti-Japanese cause. The actions of Party members who joined or aided the various Anti-Japanese Volunteer Armies eventually persuaded the
international Communist movement The history of communism encompasses a wide variety of Ideology, ideologies and political movements sharing the core principles of common ownership of wealth, economy, economic enterprise, and property. Most modern forms of communism are ground ...
to move towards a popular front policy in 1935. The Communist Party came to accept that whole-hearted support for the anti-Japanese movement and the postponement of revolutionary goals was essential if the Chinese Communists were to remain a serious political force. In 1934, after the defeat of the large Volunteer Armies, there were still various resistance forces with an estimated 50,000 men still in the field. All the Communist Party units were reorganized into the single
Northeast Anti-Japanese United Army The Northeast Counter-Japanese United Army, also known as the NAJUA or Northeast Anti-Japanese United Army, was the main Counter-Japanese guerrilla army in Northeast China (Manchuria) after the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931. Its prede ...
, with
Zhao Shangzhi Zhao Shangzhi (; 26 October 1908 –12 February 1942) was a Chinese military commander. Born into a peasant-turned-intellectual family in Chaoyang, Liaoning, he participated in the May Thirtieth Movement in 1925, and joined the Chinese Communist ...
as Commander-in-chief. The army was open to all who wanted to resist the Japanese and as it proclaimed its willingness to ally with all other anti-Japanese forces, this army won over some of the ''
shanlin The term shanlin () was frequently used to describe bandits in northeast China from the time of the Qing dynasty, because they knew the local wooded and mountainous terrain very well. Most operated in a fairly small district and took pains to main ...
'' bands, including former NSA units.


United Front

In 1935, when the Party officially changed policy, and began creating a united front, the army welcomed and absorbed most of the remaining anti-Japanese forces in Manchuria and some Korean resistance fighters including
Kim Il Sung Kim Il Sung (born Kim Song Ju; 15 April 1912 – 8 July 1994) was a North Korean politician and the founder of North Korea, which he led as its first Supreme Leader (North Korean title), supreme leader from North Korea#Founding, its establishm ...
. The number of insurgents in 1935 stood at about 40,000 men. The army was organized into Yang Jingyu's 1st Route Army (Fengtian Province),
Zhou Baozhong Zhou Baozhong (; 1902–1964) was a commander of the 88th Separate Rifle Brigade and Northeast Anti-Japanese United Army resisting the pacification of Manchukuo by the Empire of Japan. After the Chinese Civil War he was made Vice Governor of Yu ...
's 2nd Route Army (Jilin Province), and
Li Zhaolin Li Zhaolin (; November 2 1910 – March 9 1946), known earlier as Li Chaolan (), was the founder and leader of the 3rd Route Army, a division of the Northeast Anti-Japanese United Army in the Second Sino-Japanese War The Second Sino-Japa ...
's 3rd Route Army (Heilongjiang Province). The army's strategy was to form pockets of resistance in occupied areas, to harass the Japanese troops and undermine their attempts at administration, and when the
Second Sino-Japanese War The Second Sino-Japanese War was fought between the Republic of China (1912–1949), Republic of China and the Empire of Japan between 1937 and 1945, following a period of war localized to Manchuria that started in 1931. It is considered part ...
began in earnest in 1937, to make attacks to keep as many Japanese troops as possible from being sent into China. It conducted a protracted campaign which threatened the stability of the Manchukuo regime, especially during 1936 and 1937. The recently reformed
Manchukuo Imperial Army The Manchukuo Imperial Army ( zh, s=滿洲國軍, p=Mǎnzhōuguó jūn) was the army of Manchukuo, a puppet state established by the Empire of Japan in Manchuria. Established in 1932, it was primarily involved in counterinsurgency operations agai ...
replied with a major campaign with 16,000 men from October 1936 to March 1937, against the 1st Route Army in the Dongbiandao region. This was the first time it operated against the guerrillas without the support of Japanese troops. Despite heavy casualties the Manchukuo Army managed to kill over two thousand guerrillas including some of their leaders. Thus, the number of insurgents declined to 30,000 in 1936; and 20,000 in 1937. An even larger and longer campaign from November 1937 to March 1939, was waged by 24,000 Manchukuo troops against the 2nd Route Army in the area between the
Amur The Amur River () or Heilong River ( zh, s=黑龙江) is a perennial river in Northeast Asia, forming the natural border between the Russian Far East and Northeast China (historically the Outer Manchuria, Outer and Inner Manchuria). The Amur ...
,
Sungari The Songhua or Sunghwa River (also Haixi or Xingal, ''Sungari'') is one of the primary rivers of China, and the longest tributary of the Amur. It flows about from Changbai Mountains on the China–North Korea border through China's northea ...
and
Ussuri The Ussuri ( ; ) or Wusuli ( ) is a river that runs through Khabarovsk and Primorsky Krais, Russia and the southeast region of Northeast China in the province of Heilongjiang. It rises in the Sikhote-Alin mountain range, flowing north and formi ...
Rivers. In the latter half of 1938, the Japanese Army concentrated troops in eastern Fengtian province, to encircle the remnants of Yang Jingyu's army, the most dangerous of the Anti-Japanese forces, with the most reliable base area. Although the Japanese managed to cut off the supply lines to the guerrillas, they persevered, frequently launching attacks that compelled the Japanese and Manchukuoans to divert forces into punitive expeditions against them. As of September 1938, the number of insurgents had dwindled to an estimated 10,000 combatants as a result of years of fighting and privation. The Kwantung Army then brought reinforcements with a plan to mop up the remaining anti-Japanese forces in Fengtian. This operation gradually produced a critical lack of supplies, and from January to mid-February 1940 Yang Jingyu led the struggle until he died on 23 February 1940, trying to break out of the encirclement when an officer betrayed his detachment. With its strongest armies dispersed or destroyed and its base areas pacified, the remnant resistance fighters, including Kim Il Sung, were gradually forced to retreat into
Siberia Siberia ( ; , ) is an extensive geographical region comprising all of North Asia, from the Ural Mountains in the west to the Pacific Ocean in the east. It has formed a part of the sovereign territory of Russia and its predecessor states ...
between 1940 and 1942. In November 1941, Li Zhaolin entered the Soviet Union. By July 1942 Zhou Baozhong followed. Finally on 12 February 1942, Zhao Shangzhi was captured by Japanese military police after being attacked by one of their agents, and later died.


See also

* Senbu


Footnotes


Sources

* Hsu Long-hsuen and Chang Ming-kai, History of The Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945) 2nd Ed., 1971. Translated by Wen Ha-hsiung, Chung Wu Publishing; 33, 140th Lane, Tung-hwa Street, Taipei, Taiwan Republic of China. * Jowett, Phillip S., Rays of The Rising Sun, Armed Forces of Japan's Asian Allies 1931–45, Volume I: China & Manchuria, 2004. Helion & Co. Ltd., 26 Willow Rd., Solihull, West Midlands, England. * 中国抗日战争正面战场作战记 (China's Anti-Japanese War Combat Operations) ** Guo Rugui, editor-in-chief Huang Yuzhang ** Jiangsu People's Publishing House ** Date published : 2005-7-1 ** ** Online in Chinese: https://web.archive.org/web/20070528050259/http://www.wehoo.net/book/wlwh/a30012/A0170.htm%7B%7BDead link Fixed, date=August 2017 **
第二部分:从“九一八”事变到西安事变 辽宁义勇军的抗日斗争 1
*** Second part: From "9/18" emergency to Xi'an Incident The Liaoning volunteers' opposition to Japan struggles **

*** Second part: From "9/18" emergency to Xi'an Incident The Jilin volunteers' opposition to Japan struggles **

*** Second part: From "9/18" emergency to Xi'an Incident Heilongjiang volunteers' opposition to Japan struggle **

*** Second part: From "9/18" emergency to Xi'an Incident Northeast Righteous and Brave Army opposition to Japan struggles analysis
Coogan, Anthony, The volunteer armies of Northeast China, History Today; July 1993, Vol. 43 Issue 7, pp.36-41"The Magistrate", Notes On A Guerrilla Campaign, from http://www.democraticunderground.com, 06/28/2003, accessed December 20, 2006


External links





* *
Noam Chomsky, On the Backgrounds of the Pacific War, Article 1967.

Perry–Castañeda Library Map Collection Manchuria 1:250,000, Series L542, U.S. Army Map Service, 1950-
Topographic Maps of Manchuria during the Second World War. {{DEFAULTSORT:Manchukuo, Pacification of Campaigns of the Second Sino-Japanese War 1930s conflicts 1940s conflicts 1930s in China 1940s in China Military history of Manchuria
Pacification Pacification may refer to: The restoration of peace through a declaration or peace treaty: *Pacification of Ghent, an alliance of several provinces of the Netherlands signed on November 8, 1576 *Treaty of Berwick (1639), or ''Pacification of Berwi ...