Jalal-ud-Din Khalji, also known as Firuz al-Din Khalji, Jalaluddin Khilji or Firuz II (

Persian Persian may refer to: * People and things from Iran, historically called ''Persia'' in the English language ** Persians, the majority ethnic group in Iran, not to be conflated with the Iranic peoples ** Persian language, an Iranian language of the ...

; جلال الدین خلجی c. 1220 – 19 July 1296, ) was the founder and first

Sultan Sultan (; ', ) is a position with several historical meanings. Originally, it was an Arabic abstract noun meaning "strength", "authority", "rulership", derived from the verbal noun ', meaning "authority" or "power". Later, it came to be use ...

of the

Khalji dynasty The Khalji or Khilji dynasty was a Turco-Afghan dynasty that ruled the Delhi Sultanate for three decades between 1290 and 1320. It was the second dynasty to rule the Delhi Sultanate which covered large swaths of the Indian subcontinent.

that ruled the

Delhi Sultanate The Delhi Sultanate or the Sultanate of Delhi was a Medieval India, late medieval empire primarily based in Delhi that stretched over large parts of the Indian subcontinent for more than three centuries.

of India from 1290 to 1320. Originally named Firuz, Jalal-ud-Din started his career as an officer of the Mamluk dynasty, and rose to an important position under Sultan Muizzuddin Qaiqabad. After Qaiqabad was paralyzed, a group of nobles appointed his infant son

Shamsuddin Kayumars Shams ud-Din Kayumars (; 1285 – 13 June 1290) was the eleventh sultan of Delhi, and a son of Muiz ud-Din Qaiqabad (a grandson of Balban). Life His father Muiz ud din Qaiqabad was murdered by a Khalji noble, Jalal ud-Din Firuz Khalj ...

as the new Sultan, and subsequently tried to kill Jalal-ud-Din. Instead, Jalal-ud-Din had the group of nobles killed and became regent. A few months later, he deposed Kayumars, and became the new Sultan. As a Sultan, he repulsed a

Mongol invasion The Mongol invasions and conquests took place during the 13th and 14th centuries, creating history's largest contiguous empire, the Mongol Empire (1206–1368), which by 1260 covered large parts of Eurasia. Historians regard the Mongol devastati ...

, and allowed many Mongols to settle in India after their conversion to Islam. He captured Mandawar and

Jhain Chhan is a village in the Sawai Madhopur district of Rajasthan, India. It is identified with Jhain (or Jhayin), which is mentioned in the Delhi Sultanate chronicles as an important town of 13th and 14th century India. History Chhan is identi ...

from the

Chahamana The Chahamanas of Shakambhari (IAST: Cāhamāna), colloquially known as the Chauhans of Sambhar or Chauhans of Ajmer, were an Indian dynasty that ruled parts of present-day Rajasthan and neighbouring areas between the sixth and twelfth centuri ...

king Hammira, although he was unable to capture the Chahamana capital Ranthambore. During his reign, his nephew Ali Gurshasp raided Bhilsa in 1293 and Devagiri in 1296. Jalal-ud-Din, who was around 70 years old at the time of his ascension, was known as a mild-mannered, humble and kind monarch to the general public. During the first year of his reign, he ruled from Kilokhri to avoid confrontations with the old Turkic nobles of the imperial capital

Delhi Delhi, officially the National Capital Territory (NCT) of Delhi, is a city and a union territory of India containing New Delhi, the capital of India. Straddling the Yamuna river, but spread chiefly to the west, or beyond its Bank (geography ...

. Several nobles considered him as a weak ruler, and unsuccessfully attempted to overthrow him at different times. He meted out lenient punishments to the rebels, except in case of a

dervish Dervish, Darvesh, or Darwīsh (from ) in Islam can refer broadly to members of a Sufi fraternity (''tariqah''), or more narrowly to a religious mendicant, who chose or accepted material poverty. The latter usage is found particularly in Persi ...

Sidi Maula, who was executed for allegedly conspiring to dethrone him. Jalal-ud-Din was ultimately assassinated by his nephew Ali Gurshasp, who subsequently ascended the throne as

Alauddin Khalji Alauddin Khalji (; ), born Ali Gurshasp, was a ruler from the Khalji dynasty that ruled the Delhi Sultanate in the Indian subcontinent. Alauddin instituted a number of significant administrative changes in the Delhi Sultanate, related to revenue ...

Early life

Jalal-ud-din was a member of the Khalaj tribe, a tribe of originally Turkic origin that after migration from

Turkistan Turkestan,; ; ; ; also spelled Turkistan, is a historical region in Central Asia corresponding to the regions of Transoxiana and East Turkestan (Xinjiang). The region is located in the northwest of modern day China and to the northwest of its ...

had settled in

Afghanistan Afghanistan, officially the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, is a landlocked country located at the crossroads of Central Asia and South Asia. It is bordered by Pakistan to the Durand Line, east and south, Iran to the Afghanistan–Iran borde ...

for over 200 years, adopting many Afghan customs. The result was the birth of a

Turco-Afghan In the historiography of the Indian subcontinent, the term Turco-Afghan refers to the successive Islamic dynasties of the Ghaznavids, and the Delhi Sultanate, all of which had their origin in Turkic peoples from Central Asia. The Turco-Afghan period ...

culture, and the

Ghilji The Ghiljī (, ; ) also spelled Khilji, Khalji, or Ghilzai and Ghilzay (), are one of the largest Pashtuns, Pashtun tribes. Their traditional homeland is Ghazni and Qalati Ghilji in Afghanistan but they have also settled in other regions throu ...

tribe. "The Khaljis were a Turkish tribe but having been long domiciled in Afghanistan, had adopted some Afghan habits and customs. They were treated as Afghans in Delhi Court. They were regarded as barbarians. The Turkish nobles had opposed the ascent of Jalal-ud-din to the throne of Delhi."''the Khiljī tribe had long been settled in what is now Afghanistan ...'
Khalji Dynasty
''

Encyclopædia Britannica The is a general knowledge, general-knowledge English-language encyclopaedia. It has been published by Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. since 1768, although the company has changed ownership seven times. The 2010 version of the 15th edition, ...

''. 2010. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. 23 August 2010. The contemporary chronicles of the Delhi Sultanate do not provide much information about Jalaluddin's background. According to the 15th century text '' Tarikh-i-Mubarak Shahi'', Jalaluddin was a son of "Bughrush", which seems to be a mistake for Yughrush. According to ''

Tabaqat-i Nasiri ''Tabaqat-i Nasiri'' (), named for ''Sultan'' Nasir-ud-Din, is an elaborate history of the Islamic world written in Persian by Minhaj-i-Siraj Juzjani and completed in 1260. Consisting of 23 volumes and written in a blunt straightforward style, J ...

'' (1260 CE), the son of ''

Amir Emir (; ' (), also transliterated as amir, is a word of Arabic origin that can refer to a male monarch, aristocrat, holder of high-ranking military or political office, or other person possessing actual or ceremonial authority. The title has ...

'' Yughrush - probably Jalaluddin - visited Delhi with a Mongol embassy in 1260. According to the

Ilkhanate The Ilkhanate or Il-khanate was a Mongol khanate founded in the southwestern territories of the Mongol Empire. It was ruled by the Il-Khans or Ilkhanids (), and known to the Mongols as ''Hülegü Ulus'' (). The Ilkhanid realm was officially known ...

chronicler

Wassaf Abdallah ibn Faḍlallah Sharaf al-Din Shīrāzī (; 1265–1328), called Wassaf or Vassaf, was a Persian historian of the Ilkhanate. ''Waṣṣāf'', sometimes lengthened to ''Waṣṣāf al-Ḥaḍrat'' or ''Vassaf-e Hazrat'' (), is a title me ...

, Jalaluddin served the Mongols as the commander (''

shahna Shiḥna () was a medieval Islamic term meaning, roughly, "military administrator." The term was used particularly for the Seljuk Turks' representative in Iraq, who exerted the Seljuks' power over the Abbasid caliph. The Seljuks themselves ruled ...

'') of Binban, located just west of the

Indus River The Indus ( ) is a transboundary river of Asia and a trans-Himalayas, Himalayan river of South Asia, South and Central Asia. The river rises in mountain springs northeast of Mount Kailash in the Western Tibet region of China, flows northw ...

. According to Amir Khusrau's ''Miftah al-Futuh'', Jalaluddin fought against the refractory Mongol and Afghan tribes in the

Salt Range The Salt Range ( and Namkistan نمکستان) is a mountain range in the north of Punjab province of Pakistan, deriving its name from its extensive deposits of rock salt. The range extends along the south of the Potohar Plateau and the north ...

: it is possible that this refers to his exploits in the Mongol service. Jalaluddin probably entered the Delhi Sultanate service sometime during the reign of

Balban Al-Sultan al-Azam Ghiyath al-Dunya Wal Din Abu'l Muzaffar Balban al-Sultan (; 1216 – 13 January 1287), more famously known as Ghiyath al-Din Balban or simply Balban, was the ninth Mamluk sultan of Delhi. He had been the regent of the last Sha ...

. According to Isami, he was in the service of Balban's son Bughra Khan. This likely happened sometime before 1280, during Bughra Khan's tenure as the governor of Samana. Jalaluddin gradually rose to prominence as a commander in north-western India, with Samana as his headquarters. Before his ascension to the throne, Jalal-ud-din was known as ''Malik'' Firuz. He and his brother Shihabuddin (father of

) served Balban for several years. He rose to the position of ''sar-i-jandar'' (chief of the royal bodyguards), and was later appointed as the governor of the frontier province of Samana. As the governor, he distinguished himself in the Sultanate's conflicts with the

Mongol Mongols are an East Asian ethnic group native to Mongolia, China (Inner Mongolia and other 11 autonomous territories), as well as the republics of Buryatia and Kalmykia in Russia. The Mongols are the principal member of the large family of M ...

invaders. After Balban's death in 1287, Delhi's

kotwal The Kotwal also spelled as Cotwal, or Kotval, was a title used in medieval and early modern period for the leader of a Kot or fort. Kotwals often controlled the fort of a major town or an area of smaller towns on behalf of another ruler. It was ...

Malik al-Umara Fakhruddin enthroned Balban's teenage grandson

Muiz ud din Qaiqabad Muiz ud din Qaiqabad (; 1269 – 1 February 1290) was the tenth sultan of Delhi. He was the son of Bughra Khan, the Sultan of Bengal, as well as the grandson of Ghiyas ud din Balban (r. 1266–1287), the previous Sultan of Delhi. Historical ...

(or Kayqubad) with the title Muizzuddin. Qaiqabad was a weak ruler, and the administration was actually run by his officer Malik Nizamuddin. After Nizamuddin was poisoned by some rival officers, Qaiqabad summoned Jalal-ud-din from Samana to Delhi, gave him the title "Shaista Khan", appointed him as the ''ariz-i-mumalik'', and made him the governor of

Baran __NOTOC__ Baran may refer to: * Baran (name) Places Europe * Baran, Belarus, a town * Baran, Lublin Voivodeship, a village in Poland * Baran, Świętokrzyskie Voivodeship, a village in Poland * Uroczysko Baran killing fields near Kąkolewnica, Pol ...

. By this time, Qaiqabad's health had deteriorated, and two rival factions of nobles vied for the power in Delhi. One faction, led by Malik Aytemur Surkha, sought to maintain the power of the old Turkic nobility, and wanted to retain Balban's family on the throne. The other faction, led by Jalal-ud-din, supported the rise of the new nobility.

As a regent of Kayumars

When Qaiqabad was incurably paralyzed, Malik Surkha and his associate Malik Kachhan appointed his infant son

Kayumars Keyumars or Kiomars () was the name of the first king (shah) of the Pishdadian dynasty of Iran according to the ''Shahnameh''. The name appears in Avestan in the form of , or in medieval Zoroastrian texts as ''Gayōmard'' or ''Gayōmart''. I ...

(or Kayumarth) on the throne with the title Shamsuddin II. The two nobles then conspired to kill their rival nobles, including Jalal-ud-din (then Malik Firuz). At this time, Jalal-ud-din was conducting an inspection of the royal army at Bhugal Pahari (Baharpur according to

Ziauddin Barani Ziauddin Barani (‎; 1285–1357) was an Indian political thinker of the Delhi Sultanate located in present-day Northern India during Muhammad bin Tughlaq and Firuz Shah's reign. He was best known for composing the ''Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi'' ...

). His nephew Malik Ahmad Chap, who held the office of ''naib-i amir-i hajib'', informed him about the conspiracy. Jalal-ud-din then moved his quarters to Ghiyaspur, and summoned his relatives from

on the pretext of preparing for an impending

. Other officers on Surkha's hit list also joined the Khaljis. Shortly after, Jalal-ud-din received an order summoning him to the royal court in Delhi, and realized that this was part of a plot to kill him. He excused himself on the pretext of conducting an inspection of the army at

Kannauj Kannauj (Hindustani language, Hindustani pronunciation: ) is an ancient city, administrative headquarters and a municipal board or Nagar palika, Nagar Palika Parishad in Kannauj district in the Indian States and territories of India, state of Ut ...

. Kachhan then personally marched from Delhi to Kannauj, and told Jalal-ud-din that his presence was sought in Delhi immediately. Jalal-ud-din pretended not knowing anything about the conspiracy, and requested Kachhan to rest in a tent, while he finished the inspection. In the tent, Jalal-ud-din had Kachhan beheaded, and had his body thrown into the

Yamuna River The Yamuna (; ) is the second-largest tributary river of the Ganges by discharge and the longest tributary in List of major rivers of India, India. Originating from the Yamunotri Glacier at a height of about on the southwestern slopes of B ...

, starting a war between the two rival factions. Jalal-ud-din's sons marched to Delhi, entered the royal palace, and brought the titular Sultan Kayumars to Jalal-ud-din's camp. Malik Surkha and his associates tried to retrieve Kayumars, but were captured and killed. Jalal-ud-din's men also abducted some sons of Malik al-Umara Fakhruddin, the

of Delhi, and therefore, Fakhruddin dissuaded the people of Delhi from trying to retrieve Kayumars. After eliminating the officers of the rival faction, Jalal-ud-din continued to acknowledge Kayumars as the Sultan of Delhi. He became the governor of

Bhatinda Bathinda is a city and municipal corporation in Punjab, India, Punjab, India. The city is the administrative headquarters of Bathinda district. It is located in northwestern India in the Malwa (Punjab), Malwa Region, west of the capital city o ...

Dipalpur Dipalpur (), also spelt Depalpur, is a city in the Okara District of Pakistani province of Punjab that served as headquarters of Depalpur Tehsil, the largest Tehsil of Pakistan. It is situated 150 kilometres from the province capital Lahore on ...

and

Multan Multan is the List of cities in Punjab, Pakistan by population, fifth-most populous city in the Punjab, Pakistan, Punjab province of Pakistan. Located along the eastern bank of the Chenab River, it is the List of cities in Pakistan by populatio ...

provinces. Initially, he offered Kayumars' regency to Balban's nephew Malik Chajju and Fakhruddin. However, Malik Chajju preferred to be the governor of

Kara-Manikpur Kara-Manikpur was a ''subah'' (province) in Medieval India. It consisted of two strongholds: Kara and Manikpur, located on opposite sides of the river Ganges, in what is now the state of Uttar Pradesh.Yahya Sirhindi he died of starvation after being neglected, but another account states that he was murdered on Jalal-ud-din's orders by an officer whose father had been executed by him. Kayumars' titular reign (1290) lasted for around 3 months, before he was deposed by Jalal-ud-din.

Ascension to the throne

Delhi Sultanate under Jalaluddin Khalji - based on A Historical Atlas of South Asia

Jalal-ud-din (known as Malik Firuz until this point), ascended the throne of Delhi in June 1290, at the unfinished Kilokhri (also Kilughari or Kailugarhi) Palace near Delhi. At the time of his ascension, Jalal-ud-din was very unpopular. He had little support among the old Turkic nobles, who viewed him as an Afghan (Pashtun), believing him to be of non-Turkic ancestry. In addition, he was an old man of around 70 years, and his mild nature was seen as unsuitable for the position. Because of his unpopularity, he decided not to move to Balban's palace at Delhi, and lived at Kilokhri, an Afghan enclave which served as the de facto capital. He finished the palace, and turned Kilokhri into an important town. Jalal-ud-din avoided making any radical changes to the administrative set-up, and retained the old Turkic nobles in the offices that they held during Balban's reign. For example, Fakhruddin was retained as the ''kotwal'' of Delhi, Khwaja Khatir was retained as the '' wazir'', and Balban's nephew Malik Chajju was retained as the governor of Kara-Manikpur. The surviving members of Balban's royal family moved to Kara under Chajju's governorship. At the same time, Jalal-ud-din appointed his relatives and associates to the important offices. He appointed his brother Yaghrash Khan as the head of the army ministry (), and his nephew Ahmad Chap as . He gave his eldest son Mahmud the title Khan-i-Khan; the next two sons were given the titles Arkali Khan and Qadr Khan. He also appointed his nephews Ali Gurshasp (later Sultan Alauddin) and Almas Beg as ''Amir-i-Tuzuk'' (equivalent to Master of ceremonies) and ''Akhur-beg'' (equivalent to

Master of the Horse Master of the Horse is an official position in several European nations. It was more common when most countries in Europe were monarchies, and is of varying prominence today. (ancient Rome) The original Master of the Horse () in the Roman Rep ...

) respectively. Gradually, Jalal-ud-din overcame the initial hostility that he had faced from the citizens of Delhi. He gained reputation as a humble and kind-hearted monarch, as opposed to the preceding despots like Balban. After entering Delhi, he had the royal entrance to the Red Palace dismounted, and refused to sit on the king's seat in the royal audience-hall, saying that the crown had been forced upon him because of the malicious intents of Surkha and Kachhan.

Malik Chajju's revolt

While the general public admired Jalal-ud-din as a kind-hearted and sincere person, a section of nobles despised him as a weak ruler. In August 1290, Balban's nephew Malik Chajju Kashli Khan, who now headed the former royal family, staged a revolt against Jalal-ud-din at Kara. Chajju seems to have opted for the governorship of the easternmost province of Kara-Manikpur to remain away from imperial control, and possibly, because he hoped to seek support from his cousin Bughra Khan (father of Qaiqabad), who had become an independent ruler of the eastern

Bengal Bengal ( ) is a Historical geography, historical geographical, ethnolinguistic and cultural term referring to a region in the Eastern South Asia, eastern part of the Indian subcontinent at the apex of the Bay of Bengal. The region of Benga ...

region in 1287. Chajju styled himself as Sultan Mughisuddin, and declared his independence. As a mark of his sovereignty, he issued his own coins, and had the ''

khutba ''Khutbah'' (, ''khuṭbah''; , ''khotbeh''; ) serves as the primary formal occasion for public preaching in the Islamic tradition. Such sermons occur regularly, as prescribed by the teachings of all legal schools. The Islamic tradition can be ...

'' read in his name. Ali Hatim Khan, the governor of

Awadh Awadh (), known in British Raj historical texts as Avadh or Oudh, is a historical region in northern India and southern Nepal, now constituting the North-central portion of Uttar Pradesh. It is roughly synonymous with the ancient Kosala Regio ...

, as well as other older nobles appointed in the eastern region, supported him. Chajju was also supported by a number of

Hindu Hindus (; ; also known as Sanātanīs) are people who religiously adhere to Hinduism, also known by its endonym Sanātana Dharma. Jeffery D. Long (2007), A Vision for Hinduism, IB Tauris, , pp. 35–37 Historically, the term has also be ...

chiefs of the Gangetic plains, who had not paid their tribute for some years, and who swore allegiance to Balban's family. Under these circumstances, Jalal-ud-din's loyal officers in the

Ganga-Yamuna Doab ''Doab'' () is a term used in South Asia Quote: "Originally and chiefly in South Asia: (the name of) a strip or narrow tract of land between two rivers; spec. (with) the area between the rivers Ganges and Jumna in northern India." for the tract ...

region started withdrawing from the region. Chajju was confident that he enjoyed more support than Jalal-ud-din, who was yet to find favour among the old nobles of Delhi and its neighbouring areas. Therefore, he marched towards Delhi along the left bank of the Ganges River, and then the

Ramganga River Ramganga is a tributary of the river Ganges, originating in Uttarakhand state, India. Ramganga West Ramganga West River originates from Dudhatoli or Doodhatoli ranges Course The Ramganga River originates in the southern slopes of Dudhato ...

. He probably planned to enter Delhi from Amroha area. At

Badaun Budaun (romanised: Badāʾūn or Badāyūn, ) is a medieval city and headquarters of Budaun district, in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. It is located about a mile east of the Sot river, and 27 km north of the Ganges, in the Rohilkhand ...

, his supporters Malik Bahadur and Alp Ghazi joined him with their troops. Jalal-ud-din set out to crush the revolt after appointing his eldest son, who held the title '' Khan-i Khanan'', in-charge of Delhi. He led his army towards Badaun via Koil (modern Aligarh). The vanguard of his army, led by his second eldest son Arkali Khan, marched ahead of the rest of the army, and spotted Chajju's army on the other side of the Ramganga River. Chajju's soldiers had seized all the boats, so Arkali Khan's contingent could not cross the river. At night, Arkali Khan sent a raiding party to Chajju's camp on

raft A raft is any flat structure for support or transportation over water. It is usually of basic design, characterized by the absence of a hull. Rafts are usually kept afloat by using any combination of buoyant materials such as wood, sealed barre ...

s and

skiff A skiff is any of a variety of essentially unrelated styles of small boats, usually propelled by sails or oars. Traditionally, these are coastal craft or river craft used for work, leisure, as a utility craft, and for fishing, and have a one-pers ...

s. The raids caused panic among Chajju's soldiers, who deserted their camp, and moved northwards. Arkali Khan plundered the deserted camp for two days, and then pursued the enemy. He came across Chajju's army at a Ramganga river crossing, and fought an indecisive battle. Meanwhile, Jalal-ud-din's army crossed the Ganges river at Bhojpur (near Farrukhabad), and engaged Chajju's supporters in another battle. At night, an agent of Chajju's Hindu supporter Bhim Deva (Biram Deva Kotla according to ''Tarikh-i Mubarak Shahi'') informed him that Jalal-ud-din would attack his army from rear. Chajju then secretly left the camp with some of his followers. In the morning, Arkali Khan crossed the river, and easily defeated the remaining army of Chajju. Chajju's supporters Alp Ghazi and Bhim Deva were killed, while Malik Masud and Malik Muhammad Balban were captured. The rest of Chajju's army then surrendered. Chajju himself took shelter in a walled village, but the village headman turned him over to Jalal-ud-din's army. Aakali Khan then joined Jalal-ud-din, and the combined imperial army marched to the eastern districts to punish the chiefs who had supported Chajju. Some chiefs, such as that of Rupal, surrendered and saved themselves by offering heavy

tribute A tribute (; from Latin ''tributum'', "contribution") is wealth, often in kind, that a party gives to another as a sign of submission, allegiance or respect. Various ancient states exacted tribute from the rulers of lands which the state con ...

s. Others, such as that of Kahsun, faced plundering raids. The Hindu rebels were executed, and the Muslim rebels of Indian origin were sold as slaves. Jalal-ud-din treated the Turkic Muslim rebels kindly, despite objections by his nephew Ahmad Chhap. When the imprisoned rebel nobles were brought to his camp in chains, he disapproved of their mistreatment. He ordered them to be released, dressed well and entertained. He invited the high-ranking rebel nobles, such as Amir Ali Sarjandar, to a feast. Even Malik Chajju, who was captured a few days later, was sent to an honourable confinement at Multan instead of being executed; his associates were released. Jalal-ud-din openly praised the rebels for their loyalty to their deceased master Balban. When Ahmad Chhap objected to such leniency, Jalal-ud-din declared that he was not habituated to killing Muslims, and argued that the pardoned nobles would be grateful to him and remain loyal to him.

Mongol invasion

Sometime after Chajju's revolt, the Mongols invaded the north-west frontier of the Delhi Sultanate. The invasion was led by Abdullah, who was a grandson of Hallu (

Hulagu Khan Hulegu Khan, also known as Hülegü or Hulagu; ; ; ; ( 8 February 1265), was a Mongol ruler who conquered much of Western Asia. As a son of Tolui and the Keraite princess Sorghaghtani Beki, he was a grandson of Genghis Khan and brother of ...

) according to

, and a son of "the prince of

Khurasan KhorasanDabeersiaghi, Commentary on Safarnâma-e Nâsir Khusraw, 6th Ed. Tehran, Zavvâr: 1375 (Solar Hijri Calendar) 235–236 (; , ) is a historical eastern region in the Iranian Plateau in West Asia, West and Central Asia that encompasses wes ...

" according to Yahya's ''Tarikh-i Mubarak Shahi''. The frontier provinces of

, and Samana were governed by Jalal-ud-din's son Arkali Khan. Jalal-ud-din personally led an army to repulse the invaders. The two armies faced each other at a place named Bar-ram, and their

vanguard The vanguard (sometimes abbreviated to van and also called the advance guard) is the leading part of an advancing military formation. It has a number of functions, including seeking out the enemy and securing ground in advance of the main force. ...

s engaged in some skirmishes. The skirmishes ended with advantage for the Delhi forces, and the Mongols agreed to retreat. Jalal-ud-din called Abdullah his son after exchanging friendly greetings. A group of Mongols, led by Ulghu (another grandson of Hulagu), decided to embrace

Islam Islam is an Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the Quran, and the teachings of Muhammad. Adherents of Islam are called Muslims, who are estimated to number Islam by country, 2 billion worldwide and are the world ...

, and sought Jalal-ud-din's permission to settle in India. In the Delhi Sultanate, the Mongols were regarded as hardened criminals, who had been involved in murders and highway robbery. Despite this, Jalal-ud-din accepted their regrets, and allowed them to settle in the lower Ganges plain, on the Lakhnauti (Bengal) frontier of his kingdom. He also provided the new settlers with accommodation, allowances and social ranks. These Mongols came to be known as "New Muslims".

Ranthambore campaign

The

king Hammira-deva ruled a kingdom centred around Ranthambore, located to the south-west of Delhi. Hammira's expansionist policy had threatened the

Ajmer Ajmer () is a city in the north-western States and union territories of India, Indian state of Rajasthan. It serves as the administrative headquarters of the Ajmer district and Ajmer division. It lies at the centre of Rajasthan, earning it the ...

and

Haryana Haryana () is a States and union territories of India, state located in the northern part of India. It was carved out after the linguistic reorganisation of Punjab, India, Punjab on 1 November 1966. It is ranked 21st in terms of area, with les ...

frontiers of the Delhi Sultanate, which prompted Jalal-ud-din to invade his kingdom.

Siege of Mandawar

Jalal-ud-din marched via

Rewari Rewari is a city and a municipal council in Rewari district in the Indian state of Haryana. It is the district headquarters of Rewari district. It is located in south-west Haryana around 82 km from DelhiAlwar Alwar ( Rajasthani Pronunciation: �lʋəɾ is a city located in India's National Capital Region (NCR) and the administrative headquarters of Alwar District in the state of Rajasthan. It is located 150 km south of Delhi and 150 km ...

frontier of Hammira's kingdom. He first besieged fortress of Mandawar (called "Mandor" by

and Yahya Sirhindi). Mandawar was once a part of the Delhi Sultanate, but had been lost to the Chahamanas in the preceding years; Jalal-ud-din recaptured it in 1292. After this victory, he raided the countryside, obtaining a large number of cattle. According to Yahya's ''Tarikh-i Mubarak Shahi'', the siege of Mandawar lasted for four months. However, historian A. B. M. Habibullah believes that this was the duration of the entire Ranthambore campaign, including the sieges of Mandawar, Jhain and Ranthambore. Jalal-ud-din's eldest son, ''Khan-i Khanan'', died on the eve of the Mandawar campaign.

Battle of Jhain

In 1291, Jalal-ud-din marched across the

Karauli Karauli (also formerly spelled Karoli or Karaulee) is a city located in the Indian state of Rajasthan. It is located in the Braj region and holds religious importance in Hinduism. The city is the administrative center of Karauli District, a ...

region to

, a town that guarded the approaches to the Chahamana capital Ranthambore. A reconnaissance party of the Delhi army, led by Qara Bahadur, defeated a Chahamana contingent. Jalal-ud-din then sent a larger detachment to besiege the Jhain fort. When the invaders reached within two ''farsang''s of the fort, a Chahamana army led by Gardan Saini came out of the fort and engaged them in a battle. The Delhi army emerged victorious, and Gardan Saini was killed in action. The invaders then pursued the retreating Chahamana soldiers across Chambal, Kunwari and Banas rivers. The remaining Chahamana contingents stationed at Jhain then evacuated the fort, and retreated to Ranthambore. Following this victory, the invaders engaged in plunder, and dismantled the Jhain fort. Jalal-ud-din, an

iconoclast Iconoclasm ()From . ''Iconoclasm'' may also be considered as a back-formation from ''iconoclast'' (Greek: εἰκοκλάστης). The corresponding Greek word for iconoclasm is εἰκονοκλασία, ''eikonoklasia''. is the social belie ...

, broke the non-Islamic idols, although he admired their sculpture and carvings. The ''Miftah al-Futuh'', written by his courtier

Amir Khusrau Abu'l Hasan Yamīn ud-Dīn Khusrau (1253 – 1325 AD), better known as Amīr Khusrau, sometimes spelled as, Amir Khusrow or Amir Khusro, was an Indo-Persian Sufi singer, musician, poet and scholar, who lived during the period of the Delhi Sult ...

, claims that thousands of defenders were killed in the siege of Jhain, while the Delhi army lost only one Turkic soldier. The Sultan was always hostile to Hindus. According to

, Jalaluddin is believed to have said.

''What is our defense of the faith, that we suffer these Hindus, who are the greatest enemies to god (Allah) and of the religion of
Mustafa Mustafa () is one of the names of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, and the name means "chosen, selected, appointed, preferred", used as an Arabic given name and surname. Mustafa is a common name in the Muslim world. Given name Moustafa * Moustafa A ...
, to live in comfort and do not flow streams of their blood''

Siege of Ranthambore

After conquering Jhain, Jalal-ud-din ordered his army to besiege the

Ranthambore Fort Ranthambore Fort lies within the Ranthambore National Park, near the city of Sawai Madhopur in Sawai Madhopur district of Rajasthan, India. It is a formidable fort having been a focal point of the historical developments of Rajasthan. The fo ...

, which was situated on a steep hill, and was reputed to be impregnable. He issued orders for the construction of

siege engines A siege engine is a device that is designed to break or circumvent heavy castle doors, thick city walls and other fortifications in siege warfare. Some are immobile, constructed in place to attack enemy fortifications from a distance, while othe ...

such as ''maghrabis'' (

catapult A catapult is a ballistics, ballistic device used to launch a projectile at a great distance without the aid of gunpowder or other propellants – particularly various types of ancient and medieval siege engines. A catapult uses the sudden rel ...

s), , , and a (mound to reach the hilltop). According to the Delhi chronicler

, he abandoned the siege when he came out to inspect the progress of the construction, and realized the ensuing siege would cost many Muslim lives. Barani states that Jalal-ud-din declared he would not risk the hair of a single Muslim for "ten such forts". Jalal-ud-din's nephew Ahmad Chap opposed this decision saying that it would embolden the Hindus, and asked him to emulate the earlier Muslim kings such as

Mahmud Mahmud is a transliteration of the male Arabic given name (), common in most parts of the Islamic world. It comes from the Arabic triconsonantal root Ḥ-M-D, meaning ''praise'', along with ''Muhammad''. Given name Mahmood * Mahmood Ali (1928 ...

and

Sanjar Sanjar (, ; full name: ''Muizz ad-Dunya wa ad-Din Adud ad-Dawlah Abul-Harith Ahmad Sanjar ibn Malik-Shah'') (6 November 1086 – 8 May 1157) was the Seljuq ruler of Khorasan from 1097 until 1118,idolater".

Conspiracies against Jalal-ud-Din

Conspiracy of Tajuddin Kuchi

Several of Jalal-ud-Din's courtiers believed that he was a weak king, who could not inspire the necessary fear among his subjects and the enemies of the Sultanate. During the Ranthambore campaign, some of his closest associates met at the house of Malik Tajuddin Kuchi. In a drunken stupor, they talked about killing Jalal-ud-Din and raising Tajuddin to throne. When Jalal-ud-din became aware of this, he summoned the erring courtiers to a private conference. But instead of punishing them, he shamed them by daring them to kill him with his own sword. The courtiers asked for forgiveness, attributing their behavior to drunkenness, with Nusrat Sabbah making a "clever and flattering confession". The meeting ended with wine-drinking and poetry recitals by Jalal-ud-Din.

Alleged conspiracy of Sidi Maula

Jalal-ud-Din was lenient towards his detractors, and even the most persistent detractors were only banished to their for one year. The only instance in which he meted out more severe punishments was during the alleged conspiracy of Sidi Maula. Sidi Maula was a foreign-born religious leader, who belonged to a sect of unorthodox Muslim ''

es''. He owned a huge ''

khanqah A Sufi lodge is a building designed specifically for gatherings of a Sufi brotherhood or ''tariqa'' and is a place for spiritual practice and religious education. They include structures also known as ''khānaqāh'', ''zāwiya'', ''ribāṭ'' ...

'', and had been reputed for his vast charities since the reign of Qaiqabad. His institution attracted most of the dispossessed Balban-era

amirs Emir (; ' (), also transliterated as amir, is a word of Arabic origin that can refer to a male monarch, aristocrat, holder of high-ranking military or political office, or other person possessing actual or ceremonial authority. The title has ...

and officers. His followers also included Jalal-ud-Din's nobles, including Qazi Jalal Kashani and the now-deceased crown prince ''Khan-i Khanan''. Sidi Maula allegedly planned to kill Jalal-ud-Din to become ''

khalifa ''Khalifa'' or ''Khalifah'' (; commonly "caliph" in English) is a name or title which means "successor", "ruler" or "leader". It most commonly refers to the leader of a Caliphate, but is also used as a title among various Islamic religious groups ...

'', although these allegations were never proven. According to a near-contemporary account, the allegations were first made by the jealous ''dervishes'' of a rival sect. It was alleged that Sidi Maula had asked Hathya ''Paik'' and Niranjan ''Kotwal'' to assassinate Jalal-ud-Din on a Friday. These two were Balban-era Hindu officers ('' pahilwans'' or wrestlers, according to

). Malik Ulghu, the Mongol commander who had entered Jalal-ud-Din's service, reported the allegations to Arkali Khan, while Jalal-ud-Din was busy besieging Mandawar. Arkali Khan, who disliked the associates of his elder brother ''Khan-i Khanan'', accepted the allegations as true, and arrested the alleged conspirators. When Jalal-ud-Din returned to Delhi, the alleged conspirators were brought before him, and pleaded not guilty. The orthodox Muslim ''

ulama In Islam, the ''ulama'' ( ; also spelled ''ulema''; ; singular ; feminine singular , plural ) are scholars of Islamic doctrine and law. They are considered the guardians, transmitters, and interpreters of religious knowledge in Islam. "Ulama ...

'', who were unable to present any concrete evidence against the accused, suggested a

trial by fire Trial by fire may refer to: Law * Trial by fire (law), a form of trial by ordeal Film and television Films * Trial by Fire (1995 film), ''Trial by Fire'' (1995 film), a 1995 television film starring Keith Carradine * Trial by Fire (2008 film), ' ...

. When Jalal-ud-Din was convinced that the accused were guilty, he ordered the Hindu conspirators Hathya and Niranjan to be executed. He then banished Qazi Jalal Kashani and the Balban-era officers who followed Sidi Maula. Next, Jalal-ud-Din turned to Sidi Maula, and lost his composure when Sidi Maula repeatedly denied his involvement in the conspiracy. An annoyed Jalal-ud-Din asked a group of ''

qalandar Qalandar may refer to: * Qalandar (tribe), a Hazara tribe found in Afghanistan * Qalandariyya, a Sufi mystic order * Qalandar (title), a title for Sufi saints * Qalandar (clan), a Muslim community found in North India and Pakistan Places in ...

s'' to knife Sidi Maula. Arkali Khan later had the wounded Sidi Maula crushed under the feet of an elephant. Sidi Maula's execution was followed by a severe

dust storm A dust storm, also called a sandstorm, is a meteorological phenomenon common in arid and semi-arid regions. Dust storms arise when a gust front or other strong wind blows loose sand and dirt from a dry surface. Fine particles are transpo ...

, and a

drought A drought is a period of drier-than-normal conditions.Douville, H., K. Raghavan, J. Renwick, R.P. Allan, P.A. Arias, M. Barlow, R. Cerezo-Mota, A. Cherchi, T.Y. Gan, J. Gergis, D. Jiang, A. Khan, W. Pokam Mba, D. Rosenfeld, J. Tierney, ...

resulting from the failure of seasonal rains. These conditions resulted in a severe

famine A famine is a widespread scarcity of food caused by several possible factors, including, but not limited to war, natural disasters, crop failure, widespread poverty, an Financial crisis, economic catastrophe or government policies. This phenom ...

, during which the prices of foodgrains became exorbitant, and a number of people committed suicide by jumping into the

. Sidi Maula's admirers considered these unfortunate events as proof of his innocence.

Ali Gurshasp's conspiracy

After deposing Malik Chajju, Jalal-ud-din had appointed his nephew Ali Gurshasp (later Sultan

) as the governor of Kara (on the banks of Ganges, 69 km west of the city of Allahabad in present Kaushambi district in Uttar Pradesh). Ali's father had died when he was young, and Jalal-ud-din had brought him and his brother Almas Beg (later

Ulugh Khan Almas Beg (died 1302), better known by his title Ulugh Khan, was a brother and a general of the Delhi Sultanate ruler Alauddin Khalji. He held the iqta' of Bayana in present-day India. Ulugh Khan played an important role in Alauddin's ascensi ...

) up. Jalal-ud-din had also married his daughters to Ali and Almas. Ali's domestic life was miserable, as he was not on good terms with his wife and his mother-in-law, and he wanted to end his dependence on Jalal-ud-din's family. At Kara, the former supporters of Malik Chajju instigated him to overthrow Jalal-ud-din. To raise money for a coup against Jalal-ud-din, Ali raided Bhilsa in 1293. Bhilsa was a temple town in the Paramara kingdom of

Malwa Malwa () is a historical region, historical list of regions in India, region of west-central India occupying a plateau of volcanic origin. Geologically, the Malwa Plateau generally refers to the volcanic plateau, volcanic upland north of the ...

, which had already been weakened by Vaghela,

, and

Yadava The Yadava (), not to be confused with Yadav, were an ancient Indian people who believed to have descended from Yadu (legendary king), Yadu, a legendary king of Chandravamsha lineage. The community was formed of various clans, being the #T ...

invasions. As a result of this raid, he obtained a large number of cattle and precious metals. During his stay in Bhilsa, he learned about the immense wealth of the southern Yadava kingdom, as well as the routes leading to their capital

Devagiri Daulatabad Fort, originally Deogiri Fort, is a historic fortified citadel located in Daulatabad village near Aurangabad, Maharashtra, India. It was the capital of the Yadavas (9th century – 14th century CE), for a brief time the capital of ...

(present-day Daulatabad in Maharashtra). He shrewdly surrendered the loot from Bhilsa to Jalal-ud-din to win the Sultan's confidence, but withheld the information on the Yadava kingdom. Pleased with the loot, Jalal-ud-din gave Ali the office of ''Ariz-i Mamalik'', which was once held by Ali's father. He also granted Ali the governorship of

in addition to that of

Kara-Manikpur Kara-Manikpur was a ''subah'' (province) in Medieval India. It consisted of two strongholds: Kara and Manikpur, located on opposite sides of the river Ganges, in what is now the state of Uttar Pradesh.raid on Devagiri. In 1296, he set out for Devagiri with an 8,000-strong cavalry. He left the administration of Kara to Alaul Mulk, who misled Jalal-ud-din's administration in Delhi about Ali's real destination. At Devagiri, Ali collected a large amount of wealth. When Jalal-ud-din heard about Ali's success at Devagiri, he was pleased at the prospect of a vast treasure coming to him. He moved to

Gwalior Gwalior (Hindi: , ) is a major city in the central Indian state of Madhya Pradesh; It is known as the Music City of India having oldest Gwalior gharana, musical gharana in existence. It is a major sports, cultural, industrial, and political c ...

, hoping that Ali would come there to meet him en route to Kara. However, Ali marched directly towards Kara. Jalal-ud-din's councillors, such as Ahmad Chap, advised him to intercept Ali at Kara, but Jalal-ud-din trusted his nephew, and returned to Delhi. In Delhi, Ali's brother Almas Beg assured the Sultan of Ali's loyalty. After reaching Kara, Ali sent Jalal-ud-din a detailed report on the raid, and expressed concern that his enemies may have poisoned Jalal-ud-din's mind against him. He asked for a signed letter of pardon, which Jalal-ud-din dispatched immediately. At Kara, Jalal-ud-din's messengers were astonished when they learned about Ali's military strength and his plans to dethrone Jalal-ud-din. Ali detained them, and prevented them from communicating with Delhi. Meanwhile, Almas Beg convinced Jalal-ud-din that Ali always carried poison in his handkerchief and would commit suicide out of guilt, if not personally pardoned by Jalal-ud-din. A gullible Jalal-ud-din, concerned about his beloved nephew, asked Almas to visit Kara and dissuade Ali from committing suicide, promising to visit Kara himself shortly after.

Assassination

In July 1296, Jalal-ud-din marched to Kara with a large army to meet Ali during the holy month of Ramzan. He directed his commander Ahmad Chap to take the major part of the army to Kara by land, while he himself journeyed down the

Ganges River The Ganges ( ; in India: Ganga, ; in Bangladesh: Padma, ). "The Ganges Basin, known in India as the Ganga and in Bangladesh as the Padma, is an international which goes through India, Bangladesh, Nepal and China." is a trans-boundary rive ...

with 1,000 soldiers. When Jalal-ud-din's entourage came close to Kara, Ali sent Almas Beg to meet him. Almas Beg convinced Jalal-ud-din to leave behind his soldiers, saying that their presence would frighten Ali into committing suicide. Jalal-ud-din boarded a boat with a few of his companions, who were made to unbuckle their weapons. As they rode the boat, they saw Ali's armed troops stationed along the riverbank. Almas told them that these troops had been summoned to accord a worthy reception to Jalal-ud-din. Jalal-ud-din complained about Ali's lack of courtesy in not coming to greet him at this point. However, Almas convinced him of Ali's loyalty by saying that Ali was busy arranging a presentation of the loot from Devagiri and a feast for him. Satisfied by this explanation, Jalal-ud-din continued his journey to Kara, reciting

Quran The Quran, also Romanization, romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a Waḥy, revelation directly from God in Islam, God (''Allah, Allāh''). It is organized in 114 chapters (, ) which ...

on the boat. When he landed at Kara, Ali's retinue greeted him, and Ali ceremoniously threw himself at his feet. Jalal-ud-din lovingly raised Ali, gave him a kiss on cheek, and chided him for doubting his uncle's affection. At this point, Ali signaled his follower Muhammad Salim, who struck Jalal-ud-din with his sword twice. Jalal-ud-din survived the first blow, and ran towards his boat, but the second blow killed him. Ali raised the royal canopy over his head, and proclaimed himself the new Sultan. Jalal-ud-din's head was put on a spear and paraded across Ali's provinces of Kara-Manikpur and Awadh. His companions on the boat were also killed, and Ahmad Chap's army retreated to Delhi. According to the contemporary writer

, Ali ascended the throne (as

) on 19 July 1296 (16 Ramazan 695). The later writer

dates Jalal-ud-din's death and Ali's ascension to 20 July 1296, but Amir Khusrau is more reliable.

Cultural activities

Jalal-ud-din's courtier

wrote ''Miftah al-Futuh'' (1291) to commemorate his victories.

In popular culture

*Jalal-ud-din is portrayed by

Raza Murad Raza Murad (born 23 November 1950) is an Indian actor who primarily appears in Hindi films. He has acted in over 250 Hindi films and has also appeared in Bhojpuri, Punjabi and other languages and on Hindi television. Early life He is the so ...

Sanjay Leela Bhansali Sanjay Leela Bhansali (born 24 February 1963) is an Indian film director, producer, screenwriter, editor and music composer, who works in Hindi cinema. He is the recipient of several awards, including seven National Film Awards and twelve Filmf ...

's epic film ''

Padmaavat ''Padmaavat'' is a 2018 Indian Hindi-language historical drama film directed by Sanjay Leela Bhansali. Based on the epic poem of the same name by Malik Muhammad Jayasi, it stars Deepika Padukone as Rani Padmavati, a Sinhalese-born Rajput ...

'' (2018).

References

Citations

Bibliography

* * * * * * * {{DEFAULTSORT:Khalji, Jalal Ud Din Firuz Jalal-ud-din 1296 deaths Indian Sunni Muslims 13th-century Indian monarchs Year of birth unknown 13th-century monarchs in Asia 13th century in India 13th-century murdered monarchs Founding monarchs in Asia Afghan Sunni Muslims Indian people of Afghan descent