The Melayu Kingdom (also known as Malayu, Dharmasraya Kingdom or the Jambi Kingdom; , reconstructed

Middle Chinese Middle Chinese (formerly known as Ancient Chinese) or the Qieyun system (QYS) is the historical variety of Chinese language, Chinese recorded in the ''Qieyun'', a rime dictionary first published in 601 and followed by several revised and expande ...

pronunciation ''mat-la-yu kwok'')Muljana, Slamet , (2006), ''Sriwijaya'', Yogyakarta: LKIS, . was a classical

Buddhist Buddhism, also known as Buddhadharma and Dharmavinaya, is an Indian religion and List of philosophies, philosophical tradition based on Pre-sectarian Buddhism, teachings attributed to the Buddha, a wandering teacher who lived in the 6th or ...

kingdom located in what is now the

Indonesia Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania, between the Indian Ocean, Indian and Pacific Ocean, Pacific oceans. Comprising over List of islands of Indonesia, 17,000 islands, including Sumatra, ...

n province of

West Sumatra West Sumatra () is a Provinces of Indonesia, province of Indonesia. It is on the west coast of the island of Sumatra and includes the Mentawai Islands off that coast. West Sumatra borders the Indian Ocean to the west, as well as the provinces of ...

and

Jambi Jambi is a province of Indonesia. It is located on the east coast of central Sumatra Sumatra () is one of the Sunda Islands of western Indonesia. It is the largest island that is fully within Indonesian territory, as well as the list of i ...

. The primary sources for much of the information on the kingdom are the '' New History of the Tang'', and the memoirs of the

Chinese Chinese may refer to: * Something related to China * Chinese people, people identified with China, through nationality, citizenship, and/or ethnicity **Han Chinese, East Asian ethnic group native to China. **'' Zhonghua minzu'', the supra-ethnic ...

monk A monk (; from , ''monachos'', "single, solitary" via Latin ) is a man who is a member of a religious order and lives in a monastery. A monk usually lives his life in prayer and contemplation. The concept is ancient and can be seen in many reli ...

Yijing The ''I Ching'' or ''Yijing'' ( ), usually translated ''Book of Changes'' or ''Classic of Changes'', is an ancient Chinese divination text that is among the oldest of the Chinese classics. The ''I Ching'' was originally a divination manual in ...

who visited in 671. The state was "absorbed" by

Srivijaya Srivijaya (), also spelled Sri Vijaya, was a Hinduism, Hindu-Buddhism, Buddhist thalassocracy, thalassocratic empire based on the island of Sumatra (in modern-day Indonesia) that influenced much of Southeast Asia. Srivijaya was an important ...

by 692, but had "broken away" by the end of the 12th century according to

Zhao Rukuo Zhao Rukuo ( zh, t=趙汝适, s=赵汝适, p=Zhào Rǔkuò; 1170–1231), also romanised as Zhao Rugua, Chau Ju-kua, or misread as Zhao Rushi, was a Chinese government official and writer during the Song dynasty. He wrote a two-volume book titled ' ...

. The exact location of the kingdom is the subject of study among historians. One theory is that the kingdom was established around present-day

Sumatra Sumatra () is one of the Sunda Islands of western Indonesia. It is the largest island that is fully within Indonesian territory, as well as the list of islands by area, sixth-largest island in the world at 482,286.55 km2 (182,812 mi. ...

, approximately 300 km north of

Palembang Palembang (, Palembang: ''Pelémbang'', Mandarin: 巨港 (Jùgǎng), Hokkien: 舊港 (Kū-káng), Jawi: ) is the capital city of the Indonesian province of South Sumatra. The city proper covers on both banks of the Musi River in the ea ...

. According to this theory, it was founded by ethnic groups in the

Batanghari The Batang Hari () is the longest river in Sumatra island, Indonesia, about northwest of the capital Jakarta. Hydrology The river originates in West Sumatra Province, in the Minangkabau Highlands, home of the Minangkabau people, and flows thr ...

river area and gold traders from the

Minangkabau Minangkabau may refer to: * Minangkabau culture, culture of the Minangkabau people * Minangkabau Culture Documentation and Information Center * Minangkabau Express, an airport rail link service serving Minangkabau International Airport (''see bel ...

hinterland of

Pagarruyung Pagaruyung (, other name: ''Pagaruyung Dārul Qarār''), also known as Pagarruyung, Pagar Ruyung and Malayapura or Malayupura, was a kingdom that once stood in the island of Sumatra and the seat of the Minangkabau people, Minangkabau kings of ...

. States and territories disestablished in the 1340s

Etymology

There are different theories for the origin of the word ''Melayu'' ('Malay'). One theory suggests that it is derived from the Javanese terms ''melayu'' or ''mlayu'' (to steadily accelerate or to run), to describe the strong current of a river in

that today bears the name ''Sungai Melayu'' ('Melayu river') which is the right branch going upriver of Batang Hari whose watershed reaches

. The name was later possibly adopted by the Melayu Kingdom, as it is common for people in the region to be known by the name of the river on which they settled. Sumatra Topography

Another theory holds that it originated from the

Tamil Tamil may refer to: People, culture and language * Tamils, an ethno-linguistic group native to India, Sri Lanka, and some other parts of Asia **Sri Lankan Tamils, Tamil people native to Sri Lanka ** Myanmar or Burmese Tamils, Tamil people of Ind ...

words ''Malay'' and ''ur'' meaning "mountain or cave" and "city, land", respectively. It could possibly referred to

Barisan Mountains The Bukit Barisan or the Barisan Mountains are a mountain range on the western side of Sumatra, Indonesia, covering nearly 1,700 km (1,050 mi) from the north to the south of the island. The Bukit Barisan range consists primarily of volca ...

, the mountain range in Sumatra. An early literary appearance can be found in chapter 48, ''

Vayu Purana The ''Vayu Purana'' (, ) is a Sanskrit text and one of the eighteen major Puranas of Hinduism. ''Vayu Purana'' is mentioned in the manuscripts of the Mahabharata and other Hindu texts, which has led scholars to propose that the text is among the ...

'', where the word "Malayadvipa", which means "mountainous island", is described as one of the provinces in the eastern sea that was full of gold and silver. Some scholars equate the term with Sumatra, but several

Indian Indian or Indians may refer to: Associated with India * of or related to India ** Indian people ** Indian diaspora ** Languages of India ** Indian English, a dialect of the English language ** Indian cuisine Associated with indigenous peoples o ...

scholars believe the term may refer to the

Malay Peninsula The Malay Peninsula is located in Mainland Southeast Asia. The landmass runs approximately north–south, and at its terminus, it is the southernmost point of the Asian continental mainland. The area contains Peninsular Malaysia, Southern Tha ...

, which is evidence in the formation of Titiwangsa range that runs down the length of Peninsular Malaysia. The area around this mountainous range is known to be rich with gold mineralization, which befits the description of Malayadvipa. Then, the term "Maleu-Kolon" was used in

Ptolemy Claudius Ptolemy (; , ; ; – 160s/170s AD) was a Greco-Roman mathematician, astronomer, astrologer, geographer, and music theorist who wrote about a dozen scientific treatises, three of which were important to later Byzantine science, Byzant ...

's ''Geographia'' which is believed to have originated from the

term ''malayakolam'' or ''malaikurram'', referring to a geographical part of peninsula. In 7th century, the first use of the term for a nation or a kingdom was recorded by

. The East Javanese Anjukladang inscription, dated from 937 CE in Mataram Kingdom, stated that the ''Sima'' status was awarded to the Anjukladang village and a ''jayastambha'' (victory monument) was later upgraded to a temple, the monument was erected in recognition of their service on repelling the invading forces from ''Malayu''. The temple mentioned here is probably the Candi Lor (made of bricks and now in ruins) located in Candirejo village in

Nganjuk Regency Nganjuk Regency (Javanese language, Javanese: ꦏꦧꦸꦥꦠꦺꦤ꧀ꦔꦚ꧀ꦗꦸꦏ꧀) is a Regencies of Indonesia, regency ''(kabupaten)'' of East Java Province, Indonesia. It borders Bojonegoro Regency in the north, Jombang Regency in the ...

. The mentioning of invading ''Malayu'' forces refers to the old term "Sumatran Malayu Kingdom", which probably refers to

. This means that by the 10th century, the Javanese identified their Sumatra-based enemy as "Malayu" or at least the "Malay soldiers of Srivijaya". An inscription on the south wall of the 11th century

Brihadeeswarar Temple Brihadishvara Temple, called Rajarajesvaram () by its builder, and known locally as ''Thanjai Periya Kovil'' () and ''Peruvudaiyar Kovil'', is a Shaivite Hindu temple built in a Chola architectural style located on the south bank of the Cau ...

also made a reference to ''Malaiyur'', a kingdom that had "a strong mountain for its rampart" during the

Chola invasion of Srivijaya In 1025 CE, the Chola Emperor Rajendra I launched naval invasions on Srivijaya in maritime Southeast Asia, leading to the fall of the Sailendra Dynasty of Srivijaya. Rajendra's overseas expedition against Srivijaya was a unique event in In ...

period. This referred to

Chola The Chola Empire, which is often referred to as the Imperial Cholas, was a medieval thalassocratic empire based in southern India that was ruled by the Chola dynasty, and comprised overseas dominions, protectorates and spheres of influence ...

invaders during

Rajendra Chola I Rajendra I (26 July 971 – 1044), often referred to as Rajendra the Great, was a Chola Empire, Chola Emperor who reigned from 1014 to 1044. He was born in Thanjavur to Rajaraja I. His queen was Vanavan Mahadevi and he assumed royal power as ...

's campaign. In the later

Yuan dynasty The Yuan dynasty ( ; zh, c=元朝, p=Yuáncháo), officially the Great Yuan (; Mongolian language, Mongolian: , , literally 'Great Yuan State'), was a Mongol-led imperial dynasty of China and a successor state to the Mongol Empire after Div ...

(1271–1368) and

Ming dynasty The Ming dynasty, officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming was the last imperial dynasty of ...

(1368–1644), the word ''Ma-La-Yu'' was mentioned often in

historical texts — with changes in spelling due to the time span between the dynasties — to refer to a nation near the southern sea. Among the terms used was "Bok-la-yu", "Mok-la-yu" (木剌由), Ma-li-yu-er (麻里予兒), Oo-lai-yu (巫来由 — traced from the written source of monk

Xuanzang Xuanzang (; ; 6 April 6025 February 664), born Chen Hui or Chen Yi (), also known by his Sanskrit Dharma name Mokṣadeva, was a 7th-century Chinese Bhikkhu, Buddhist monk, scholar, traveller, and translator. He is known for the epoch-making ...

), and Wu-lai-yu (無来由). In the chronicle of Yuan dynasty, the word "Ma-li-yu-er" was mentioned in describing the Sukhothai's southward expansion against Malayu: In response to the Sukhothai's move, a

envoy arrived at the

Ram Khamhaeng Ramkhamhaeng (, ) or commonly known as Pho Khun Ramkhamhaeng Maharat (, ) was the third king of the Phra Ruang Dynasty, ruling the Sukhothai Kingdom (a historical kingdom of Thailand) from 1279 to 1298, during its most prosperous era. He is c ...

's court in 1295 bearing an imperial order: "Keep your promise and do no evil to Ma-li-yu-er". This nation of "Ma-li-yu-er" that appeared in the

record may also be the nation that was mentioned by the Venetian traveller

Marco Polo Marco Polo (; ; ; 8 January 1324) was a Republic of Venice, Venetian merchant, explorer and writer who travelled through Asia along the Silk Road between 1271 and 1295. His travels are recorded in ''The Travels of Marco Polo'' (also known a ...

(1254–1324) who lived during the same period. In ''The Travels of Marco Polo'', he made a reference to a kingdom named "Malauir" in the Malay peninsula. The word ''bhūmi Mālayu'' (literally "Land of Malayu") is inscribed on the

Padang Roco Inscription The Padang Roco Inscription, in Indonesian Prasasti Padang Roco, is an inscription dated 1286 CE, discovered near the source of Batanghari river, Padangroco temple complex, Nagari Siguntur, Sitiung, Dharmasraya Regency, West Sumatra, Indonesia. E ...

, dated 1286, according to the inscription, ''bhūmi Mālayu'' is associated with the

Dharmasraya Padang Roco inscription where the name ''Dharmasraya'' was mentioned Dharmasraya or Dharmmāśraya was the capital of the 11th century Buddhist polity known as Melayu Kingdom, based on the Batanghari river system in modern-day West Sumatra ...

kingdom. On the

Amoghapasa inscription Amoghapasa inscription is an inscription inscribed on the back of ''pāduka Amoghapāśa'' as referred to in Padang Roco inscription. In 1347, Adityawarman added this inscription on back of the statue proclaimed that the statue portrayed himself ...

, dated 1347, the word ''Malayapura'' (literally "city of Malaya" or "kingdom of Malaya") was proclaimed by

Adityawarman Adityawarman (formal regnal name Maharajadiraja Srīmat Srī Udayādityawarma Pratāpaparākrama Rājendra Maulimāli Warmadewa. ) was a king of Malayapura Suvarnabhumi, and is the successor of the Mauli dynasty based in central Sumatra. He ...

, again referring to

. The word "Melayu" is also mentioned in the

Malay annals The ''Malay Annals'' ( Malay: ''Sejarah Melayu'', Jawi: ), originally titled ''Sulalatus Salatin'' (''Genealogy of Kings''), is a literary work that gives a romanticised history of the origin, evolution and destruction of the Malacca Sultanat ...

referring to a river in

: For some time, the Melayu kingdom was identified by the Chinese as the successor to Srivijaya. As indicated when ''Sanfoqi'' sent a mission to China in 1028, but this would actually refer to Malayu-Jambi, not Srivijaya-Palembang. No ''Sanfoqi'' mission came to China between 1028–1077. This indicates that the ''

mandala A mandala (, ) is a geometric configuration of symbols. In various spiritual traditions, mandalas may be employed for focusing attention of practitioners and adepts, as a spiritual guidance tool, for establishing a sacred space and as an aid ...

'' of Srivijaya had faded. It is very possible that Srivijaya had collapsed by 1025. In the following centuries, Chinese chronicles still refer to ''Sanfoqi'', but this term probably refers to the Malayu-Jambi kingdom. The last

epigraphic Epigraphy () is the study of inscriptions, or epigraphs, as writing; it is the science of identifying graphemes, clarifying their meanings, classifying their uses according to dates and cultural contexts, and drawing conclusions about the wr ...

evidence that mentions the word Srivijaya comes from the Tanjore inscription of the Chola kingdom in 1030 or 1031.

History

Yijing's account

The primary sources for much of the information on the kingdom are the '' New History of the Tang'', and the memoirs of the

who visited in 671. On his route via Maritime Southeast Asia, Yijing visited Srivijaya twice where he stayed from 688 to 695, studying and translating the original texts in Sanskrit. Srivijaya appears to have been flourishing around the time of Yijing's visit, which he initially called "Bogha (室利佛逝)" during his first visit. At its greatest extent, the kingdom extended to Malayu, which seems to have been annexed or to have come spontaneously under the realm of Bogha prince. The whole country as well as the capital received the name "Sribogha" or Srivijaya. The change of the name Malayu to Sribogha is likely to have occurred before Yijing's time or during his stay there, for whenever he mentions Malayu by name, he added that "it is now changed to Sribogha". The following extract from Yijing's work, '' The Great Tang Biographies of Eminent Monks who Sought the Dharma in the Western Regions'' (大唐西域求法高僧傳), further describes a route via Bogha and Malayu, which a monk named Wuxing(無行) have taken to Srivijaya: Further, for the determination of the location of Sribogha-Malayu, Yijing furnishes the following in his work ''

A Record of Buddhist Practices Sent Home from the Southern Sea ''A Record of Buddhist Practices Sent Home from the Southern Sea'', also known as the ''Nanhai Jigui Neifa Zhuan'' and by other translations, is a Buddhist travelogue by the Tang Chinese monk Yijing The ''I Ching'' or ''Yijing'' ( ), usu ...

''(南海寄歸內法傳): Thus it can be inferred that the country of Sribogha covered the place lying on the equator, and the whole county therefore must have covered the north east side of Sumatra, from the southern shore of

Malacca Malacca (), officially the Historic State of Malacca (), is a States and federal territories of Malaysia, state in Malaysia located in the Peninsular Malaysia#Other features, southern region of the Malay Peninsula, facing the Strait of Malacca ...

, to the city of Palembang, extending at least five degrees, having the equatorial line at about the centre of the kingdom. According to Yijing,

Hinayana Hīnayāna is a Sanskrit term that was at one time applied collectively to the '' Śrāvakayāna'' and '' Pratyekabuddhayāna'' paths of Buddhism. This term appeared around the first or second century. The Hīnayāna is considered as the prelim ...

Buddhism was predominantly adopted in Srivijaya, represented for the most part by the

Mulasarvastivada The Mūlasarvāstivāda (; ) was one of the early Buddhist schools of India. The origins of the Mūlasarvāstivāda school and their relationship to the Sarvāstivāda remain largely unknown, although various theories exist. The continuity of t ...

school, however there were few Mahayanists in Malayu. Gold seems to have been abundant in the kingdom, where people used to offer the Buddha a lotus flower of gold and used golden jars. Moreover, people of the kingdom wore a type of long cloth and used fragrant oil. Further, Melayu had accessed to gold producing areas in the hinterland of

. This slowly increased the prestige of Melayu which traded various local goods, including gold, with foreigners. The state was "absorbed" by

by 692.

Golden age

Between 1079 and 1088, Chinese records show that Sanfoqi sent ambassadors from Jambi and Palembang. In 1079 in particular, an ambassador from Jambi and Palembang each visited China. Jambi sent two more ambassadors to China in 1082 and 1088. That would suggest that the centre of Sanfoqi frequently shifted between the two major cities during that period. The Chola expeditions as well as the changing trade routes weakened Palembang, allowing Jambi to take the leadership of Sanfoqi from the 11th century onwards. By the 12th century, a new dynasty called

Mauli Mauli was a dynasty of kings that ruled the '' Bhumi Malayu'' or Dharmasraya kingdom, centered in the Batanghari river system (today Jambi and West Sumatra provinces, Sumatra), from the 11th century to the 14th century.Muljana, Slamet, 2006, ''S ...

rose as the paramount of Sanfoqi. The earliest reference to the new dynasty was found in the Grahi inscription from 1183 discovered in

Chaiya Chaiya (, ) is a former capital district ('' Amphoe mueang'') of Surat Thani province, Southern Thailand. The main town is Talat Chaiya. Geography Neighboring districts are (from the south clockwise): Tha Chang and Kapoe of Ranong province; ...

( Grahi), Southern Thailand Malay Peninsula. The inscription bears the order of Maharaja Srimat Trailokyaraja Maulibhusana Warmadewa to the ''bhupati'' (regent) of Grahi named Mahasenapati Galanai to make a statue of Buddha weighing 1 ''bhara'' 2 ''tula'' with a value of 10 gold ''tamlin''. The artist responsible for the creation of the statue is Mraten Sri Nano. According to the Chinese

Song dynasty The Song dynasty ( ) was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 960 to 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song, who usurped the throne of the Later Zhou dynasty and went on to conquer the rest of the Fiv ...

book '' Zhu Fan Zhi'', written around 1225 by

Zhao Rugua Zhao Rukuo ( zh, t=趙汝适, s=赵汝适, p=Zhào Rǔkuò; 1170–1231), also romanised as Zhao Rugua, Chau Ju-kua, or misread as Zhao Rushi, was a Chinese government official and writer during the Song dynasty. He wrote a two-volume book titled ' ...

, the two most powerful and richest kingdoms in the

Southeast Asia Southeast Asia is the geographical United Nations geoscheme for Asia#South-eastern Asia, southeastern region of Asia, consisting of the regions that are situated south of China, east of the Indian subcontinent, and northwest of the Mainland Au ...

n archipelago were Sanfoqi and Java ( Kediri), with the western part (Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula, and western Java/ Sunda) under Sanfoqi's rule and the eastern part was under Kediri's domination. It says that the people in Java followed two religions,

Buddhism Buddhism, also known as Buddhadharma and Dharmavinaya, is an Indian religion and List of philosophies, philosophical tradition based on Pre-sectarian Buddhism, teachings attributed to the Buddha, a wandering teacher who lived in the 6th or ...

and the religion of

Brahmins Brahmin (; ) is a ''Varna (Hinduism), varna'' (theoretical social classes) within Hindu society. The other three varnas are the ''Kshatriya'' (rulers and warriors), ''Vaishya'' (traders, merchants, and farmers), and ''Shudra'' (labourers). Th ...

(

Hinduism Hinduism () is an Hypernymy and hyponymy, umbrella term for a range of Indian religions, Indian List of religions and spiritual traditions#Indian religions, religious and spiritual traditions (Sampradaya, ''sampradaya''s) that are unified ...

), while the people of Sanfoqi followed Buddhism. The book describes the people of Java as being brave, short-tempered and willing to fight. It also notes that their favourite pastimes were

cockfighting Cockfighting is a blood sport involving domesticated roosters as the combatants. The first documented use of the word gamecock, denoting use of the cock as to a "game", a sport, pastime or entertainment, was recorded in 1634, after the term ...

and pig fighting. The coins used as currency were made from a mixture of

copper Copper is a chemical element; it has symbol Cu (from Latin ) and atomic number 29. It is a soft, malleable, and ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. A freshly exposed surface of pure copper has a pinkish-orang ...

silver Silver is a chemical element; it has Symbol (chemistry), symbol Ag () and atomic number 47. A soft, whitish-gray, lustrous transition metal, it exhibits the highest electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, and reflectivity of any metal. ...

and

tin Tin is a chemical element; it has symbol Sn () and atomic number 50. A silvery-colored metal, tin is soft enough to be cut with little force, and a bar of tin can be bent by hand with little effort. When bent, a bar of tin makes a sound, the ...

. ''Zhu fan zhi'' also states that Java ( Kediri) was ruled by a

maharaja Maharaja (also spelled Maharajah or Maharaj; ; feminine: Maharani) is a royal title in Indian subcontinent, Indian subcontinent of Sanskrit origin. In modern India and Medieval India, medieval northern India, the title was equivalent to a pri ...

and included the following "dependencies": ''Pai-hua-yuan'' (

Pacitan Pacitan Regency (; ) is a regency located in the southwestern corner of East Java Province, with Central Java Province on its western border. Located between 7.55° - 8.17°S and 110.55° - 111.25°E. The borders of Pacitan Regency are with Wonogi ...

), Ma-tung (Mataram), ''Ta-pen'' (Tumapel, now

Malang Malang (; , ), historically known as Tumapel, is an inland List of regencies and cities of Indonesia, city in the Indonesian Provinces of Indonesia, province of East Java. It has a history dating back to the age of the Singhasari, Singhasari K ...

), ''Hi-ning'' ( Dieng), ''Jung-ya-lu'' (Hujung Galuh, now

Surabaya Surabaya is the capital city of East Java Provinces of Indonesia, province and the List of Indonesian cities by population, second-largest city in Indonesia, after Jakarta. Located on the northeastern corner of Java island, on the Madura Strai ...

), ''Tung-ki''''Teng-che'' in source. (Jenggi, West Papua), ''Ta-kang'' (

Sumba Sumba (; ), natively also spelt as Humba, Hubba, Suba, or Zuba (in Sumba languages) is an Indonesian island (part of the Lesser Sunda Archipelago group) located in the Eastern Indonesia and administratively part of the East Nusa Tenggara pro ...

), ''Huang-ma-chu'' (

Southwest Papua Southwest Papua (; ) is the 38th provinces of Indonesia, province of Indonesia to be created, and was split off from West Papua (province), West Papua on 8 December 2022. Despite being named "southwest", this is actually a misnomer and this prov ...

), ''Ma-li'' (

Bali Bali (English:; Balinese language, Balinese: ) is a Provinces of Indonesia, province of Indonesia and the westernmost of the Lesser Sunda Islands. East of Java and west of Lombok, the province includes the island of Bali and a few smaller o ...

), ''Kulun''''Niu-lun'' in source. (Gurun, identified as Gorong or

Sorong Sorong is the largest city and the capital of the Indonesian province of Southwest Papua. The city is located on the western tip of the island of New Guinea with its only land borders being with Sorong Regency. It is the gateway to Indonesia ...

in West Papua or an island in

Nusa Tenggara The Lesser Sunda Islands (, , ), now known as Nusa Tenggara Islands (, or "Southeast Islands"), are an archipelago in the Indonesian archipelago. Most of the Lesser Sunda Islands are located within the Wallacea region, except for the Bali pr ...

), ''Tan-jung-wu-lo'' (

Tanjungpura Tanjungpura is a name of a small town in Ketapang Regency of West Kalimantan, Indonesia. It was formerly the capital of the Tanjungpura Kingdom. External links

* http://ketapangcityku.blogspot.com/2012/07/makam-raja-tanjungpura-ketapang.html ...

in modern-day

West Kalimantan West Kalimantan () is a province of Indonesia. It is one of five Indonesian provinces comprising Kalimantan, the Indonesian part of the island of Borneo. Its capital and largest city is Pontianak. It is bordered by East Kalimantan and Central ...

Borneo Borneo () is the List of islands by area, third-largest island in the world, with an area of , and population of 23,053,723 (2020 national censuses). Situated at the geographic centre of Maritime Southeast Asia, it is one of the Greater Sunda ...

), ''Ti-wu'' (

Timor Timor (, , ) is an island at the southern end of Maritime Southeast Asia, in the north of the Timor Sea. The island is Indonesia–Timor-Leste border, divided between the sovereign states of Timor-Leste in the eastern part and Indonesia in the ...

), ''Pingya-i'' ( Banggai in Sulawesi) and ''Wu-nu-ku'' (

Maluku Maluku may refer to: Places * Maluku Islands, an archipelago that is part of Indonesia ** List of the Maluku Islands * Maluku (province), a province of Indonesia comprising the central and southern parts of the archipelago * North Maluku, a provin ...

). Additionally, Zhao Rugua said that Sanfoqi "was still a great power at the beginning of the thirteenth century" with 15 colonies: ''Pong-fong'' (

Pahang {{Infobox political division , name = Pahang , official_name = Pahang Darul Makmur , native_name = , settlement_type = States and federal territories of Malaysia, State , image_skyline = , imagesize ...

), ''Tong-ya-nong'' (

Terengganu Terengganu (; Terengganu Malay: ''Tranung'', formerly spelled Trengganu or Tringganu) is a sultanate and States and federal territories of Malaysia, federal state of Malaysia. The state is also known by its Arabic honorific, ''Dāru l-Iman (c ...

), ''Ling-ya-si-kia'' (

Langkasuka Langkasuka was an ancient Malay Hindu-Buddhist kingdom located in the Malay Peninsula (in modern-day Thailand). Langkasuka flourished from the 2nd century to the 15th century as the oldest kingdom in the Malay Peninsula, believed to have been esta ...

), ''Kilan-tan'' (

Kelantan Kelantan (; Kelantan-Pattani Malay, Kelantanese Malay: ''Klate''; ) is a state in Malaysia. The capital, Kota Bharu, includes the royal seat of Kubang Kerian. The honorific, honorific name of the state is ''Darul Naim'' ("The Blissful Abode"). ...

), ''Fo-lo-an'' (

Dungun Dungun (Terengganu Malay: ''Dungung'') is a coastal district of the Malaysian state of Terengganu. Kuala Dungun is the capital of the district. Dungun is made up of eleven 'mukim', or subdistricts: Abang, Besol, Jengai, Jerangau, Kuala Dungun, Ku ...

, eastern part of Malay Peninsula, a town within state of Terengganu), ''Ji-lo-t'ing'' (

Cherating Cherating ( Jawi: چراتيڠ) is a coastal town in Kuantan District, Pahang, Malaysia. It is located 47 kilometers north of Kuantan. Popular tourist attractions are the beaches along the Chendor Beach with many hotels and resorts. Cherating als ...

), ''Ts'ien-mai'' (Semawe, Malay Peninsula), ''Pa-t'a'' ( Sungai Paka, located in

of Malay Peninsula), ''Tan-ma-ling'' (

Tambralinga Tambralinga or Ho-ling was an Indianised Malay kingdom located on the Malay Peninsula (in modern-day Southern Thailand), existing at least from the 2nd to 13th centuries CE. It possibly was under the influence of Srivijaya for some time, but l ...

, ''Ligor or''

Nakhon Si Thammarat Nakhon Si Thammarat (, ; from ) is a city municipality (''thesaban nakhon'') located in Mueang Nakhon Si Thammarat, the capital of Nakhon Si Thammarat Province. Nakhon Si Thammarat Province is situated in the South of Thailand. It is about s ...

, South

Thailand Thailand, officially the Kingdom of Thailand and historically known as Siam (the official name until 1939), is a country in Southeast Asia on the Mainland Southeast Asia, Indochinese Peninsula. With a population of almost 66 million, it spa ...

), ''Kia-lo-hi'' (Grahi, (

Krabi Krabi (, ) is the capital of and main town in Krabi Province (''thesaban mueang''), on the west coast of southern Thailand, where the Krabi River flows into Phang Nga Bay. The town lies south of Bangkok, and as of 2020, has a population of 32, ...

) northern part of Malay Peninsula), ''Pa-lin-fong'' (

), ''Sin-t'o'' ( Sunda), ''Lan-wu-li'' (

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), ''Kien-pi'' (

) and ''Si-lan'' (

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(?)).

Demise

Almost a century after taking over the role of Palembang as the centre of an empire, Jambi experienced a decline in influence. This was caused by a change of policy in 1178 by the

to no longer accept ambassadors from

Sanfotsi Sanfotsi (), also written as Sanfoqi, was a trading polity in Southeast Asia mentioned in Chinese sources dated from the Song dynasty circa 12th century. In 1918, George Cœdès concluded that Chinese forms of ''San-fo-ts'i'' (Sanfoqi), ''Fo-ts'i'' ...

, and Jambi's inability to cope with the changing scenario. Instead of Jambi controlling the trade through a tributary system, traders were allowed to trade directly. In 1275,

Kertanegara Sri Maharajadiraja Sri Kertanagara Wikrama Dharmatunggadewa, Kritanagara, or Sivabuddha (died 1292), was the last and most important ruler of the Singhasari kingdom of Java, reigning from 1268 to 1292. Under his rule Javanese trade and power dev ...

, of the

Singhasari Kingdom Singhasari ( or , ), also known as Tumapel, was a Javanese Hindu-Buddhist kingdom located in east Java between 1222 and 1292. The kingdom succeeded the Kingdom of Kediri as the dominant kingdom in eastern Java. The kingdom's name is cogn ...

, took advantage of Melayu's decline and sent a military expedition to establish Javanese control over Melayu's realm in Sumatra. Mahesa Anabrang (or Kebo/Lembu Anabrang) was a general of Singhasari, who conquered Palembang and Jambi (Malayu) in 1288. However, embassies by Malayu were still being sent to China in 1299 and 1301. According to

George Coedes George may refer to: Names * George (given name) * George (surname) People * George (singer), American-Canadian singer George Nozuka, known by the mononym George * George Papagheorghe, also known as Jorge / GEØRGE * George, stage name of Gior ...

, by the beginning of the 14th century, Melayu "remained the only Sumatran state of some political importance and it had become the refuge of the Buddhist

Dharmic Dharma (; , ) is a key concept in various Indian religions. The term ''dharma'' does not have a single, clear translation and conveys a multifaceted idea. Etymologically, it comes from the Sanskrit ''dhr-'', meaning ''to hold'' or ''to support' ...

Indian culture in opposition to the sultanates of the north that were already

Islamised The spread of Islam spans almost 1,400 years. The early Muslim conquests that occurred following the death of Muhammad in 632 CE led to the creation of the caliphates, expanding over a vast geographical area; conversion to Islam was boosted b ...

or in the process of becoming so". The ''

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'' in 1371 mentions three kings that divided the ancient territory of Srivijaya, whose center was then Jambi and according to their titles were heir to Malayu. There were still sending embassies in 1374 and 1375. One king who reigned in the Jambi region in 1376 received the title 'King of San-fo-ch'i' from China, even though the Javanese (Majapahit) had conquered this region. According to the chronicle, the Javanese became very angry as their supposed vassal displayed a tendency towards independence and so they made a punitive expedition to Palembang. The chronicle continues: " an-fo-ch'ibecame gradually poorer and no tribute was brought from this country any more."

Melayu's last prince Parameswara

In the year 1347,

Tribhuwana Wijayatunggadewi Tribhuwana Wijayatunggadewi, known in her regnal name Tribhuwannottunggadewi Jayawishnuwardhani, also known as Dyah Gitarja or Gitarja, was a Javanese queen regnant/ empress and the third Majapahit monarch, reigning from 1328 to 1350. She also be ...

, the Queen of Majapahit, delegated

as the ruler of Melayu to prevent the revival of Srivijaya. Adityawarman later conquered

Tanah Datar Tanah Datar Regency is a landlocked List of regencies and cities of Indonesia, regency (''kabupaten'') in West Sumatra province, Indonesia. The regency has an area of 1,337.1 km2 and had a population of 338,484 at the 2010 Census,Biro Pusat ...

to take control of the gold trade and founded a kingdom in

Pagaruyung Pagaruyung (, other name: ''Pagaruyung Dārul Qarār''), also known as Pagarruyung, Pagar Ruyung and Malayapura or Malayupura, was a kingdom that once stood in the island of Sumatra and the seat of the Minangkabau kings of Western Sumatra. M ...

. In the year 1377, the Majapahit defeated Palembang and ended efforts to revive Srivijaya. The last prince of Srivijayan origin, Parameswara (thought to be the same person as Iskandar Shah in the

Malay Annals The ''Malay Annals'' ( Malay: ''Sejarah Melayu'', Jawi: ), originally titled ''Sulalatus Salatin'' (''Genealogy of Kings''), is a literary work that gives a romanticised history of the origin, evolution and destruction of the Malacca Sultanat ...

), fled to

Temasik Temasek ( or , also spelt Temasik or Tumasik) is an early recorded name of a settlement on the site of modern Singapore. The name appears in early Malay and Javanese literature, and it is also recorded in Yuan and Ming Chinese documents a ...

to seek refuge before moving farther north, where he founded what would become the

Malacca Sultanate The Malacca Sultanate (; Jawi script: ) was a Malay sultanate based in the modern-day state of Malacca, Malaysia. Conventional historical thesis marks as the founding year of the sultanate by King of Singapura, Parameswara, also known as I ...

Notes

References

External links

Photos of ancient Melayu Kingdom
*
Timeline of Indonesia history

Memartabatkan dan Menyatukan Dunia Melayu 'Melayu'
{{Precolonial states in Indonesia Srivijaya Hindu Buddhist states in Indonesia Precolonial states of Indonesia Malay kingdoms 7th century in Indonesia