Major Studios

Major film studios are production and distribution companies that release a substantial number of films annually and consistently command a significant share of box office revenue in a given market. In the American and international markets, the major film studios, often known simply as the majors or the Big Five studios, are commonly regarded as the five diversified media conglomerates whose various film production and distribution subsidiaries collectively command approximately 80 to 85% of American box office revenue. The term may also be applied more specifically to the primary motion picture business subsidiary of each respective conglomerate.

Since the dawn of filmmaking, the major American film studios have dominated both American cinema and the global film industry. American studios have benefited from a strong first-mover advantage in that they were the first to industrialize filmmaking and master the art of mass-producing and distributing high-quality films with broad cross-cultural appeal. Today, the Big Five majors – Universal Pictures, Paramount Pictures, Warner Bros., Walt Disney Studios, and Sony Pictures – routinely distribute hundreds of films every year into all significant international markets (that is, where discretionary income is high enough for consumers to afford to watch films). The majors enjoy "significant internal economies of scale" from their "extensive and efficient istributioninfrastructure," while it is "nearly impossible" for a film to reach a broad international theatrical audience without being first picked up by one of the majors for distribution. Today, all the Big Five major studios are also members of the Motion Picture Association (MPA) and the Alliance of Motion Picture and Television Producers (AMPTP).

Overview

The current "Big Five" majors (Universal, Paramount, Warner Bros., Disney, and Sony) all originate from film studios that were active during Hollywood's "Golden Age". Four of these were among that original era's " Eight Majors," being that era's original "Big Five" plus its "Little Three," collectively the eight film studios that controlled as much as 96% of the market during the 1930s and 1940s.

In addition to being members of today's "Big Five," Paramount Pictures and Warner Bros. were also part of the original "Big Five," along with RKO Pictures, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, and 20th Century Fox.

Universal Pictures was, during that early era, considered one of the "Little Three," along with United Artists and Columbia Pictures. RKO went defunct in 1959. United Artists began as a distribution company for several independent producers, later began producing its own films, and was eventually acquired by MGM in 1981. Columbia Pictures eventually merged in 1987 with Tri-Star Pictures to form Columbia Pictures Entertainment, now known as Sony Pictures Entertainment Inc.

During the Golden Age, Walt Disney Productions was an independent production company and not considered a "major studio" until 1984, when it joined 20th Century Fox, Columbia, Metro–Goldwyn–Mayer, Paramount, Universal, and Warner Bros. to comprise the "Big Seven". The decay of MGM in 1986 led the studio to become a mini-major upon its sale in 1986, reducing the majors to the "Big Six". In 1989, Sony acquired Columbia Pictures Entertainment, which became Sony Pictures Entertainment in 1991.

In 2019, Disney acquired Fox, reducing the majors to a new "Big Five" for the first time since Hollywood's Golden Age. Thus, Paramount and Warner are the only Golden Age Big Five members to remain as majors today with the same names, while 20th Century Studios continues to be a major under the ownership of Disney.

While the Big Five's main studio lots are located within of each other, Paramount is the only member of the Big Five still based ''in'' Hollywood and located entirely within the official city limits of the City of Los Angeles. Warner Bros. and Disney are both located in Burbank, while Universal is in the nearby unincorporated area of Universal City, and Sony is in Culver City.

Disney is the only studio that has been owned by the same conglomerate since its founding. The offices of that parent entity are still located on Disney's studio lot and in the same building.

Meanwhile, Sony Pictures Motion Picture Group is a wholly owned subsidiary of Sony Pictures Entertainment, which is owned by Tokyo-based Sony Group Corporation and is the only US film studio owned by a foreign conglomerate. Universal, now owned by Philadelphia-based Comcast (via NBCUniversal), was previously owned by foreign companies including Japan's Matsushita Electric, Canada's Seagram, and France's Vivendi in succession. The other two major studios report to corporations headquartered in New York City — Paramount Global and Warner Bros. Discovery. Most of today's Big Five also control subsidiaries with their own distribution networks that concentrate on arthouse pictures (e.g., Universal's Focus Features) or genre films (e.g., Sony's Screen Gems); several other specialty units were shut down or sold off between 2008 and 2010.

Outside of the Big Five, there are several smaller American production and distribution companies, known as independents or "indies". The leading independent producers and distributors such as Lionsgate Studios, the aforementioned Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (now owned by Amazon), A24, and STX Entertainment, are sometimes referred to as "mini-majors". From 1998 through 2005, during a portion of the Big Six period, DreamWorks SKG commanded a large enough market share to arguably qualify it as a seventh major. In 2006, DreamWorks was acquired by Viacom, Paramount's then-corporate parent (Viacom, after other mergers and acquisitions and rebrandings, included its movie studio's well-known name when the parent company rebranded as Paramount Global in 2022). In late 2008, DreamWorks once again became an independent production company; its films were distributed by Disney's Touchstone Pictures until 2016, at which point distribution switched to Universal.

Today, the Big Five major studios are primarily financial backers and distributors of films whose actual production is largely handled by independent companies – either long-running entities or ones created for and dedicated to the making of a specific film. For example, Disney and Sony Pictures distribute their films through affiliated divisions (Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures and Sony Pictures Releasing, respectively), while the others function as both production and distribution companies. The specialty divisions (such as Disney's Searchlight Pictures and Universal's Focus Features) often acquire distribution rights to films in which the studio has had no prior involvement. While the majors still do a modicum of true production, their activities are focused more in the areas of development, financing, marketing, and merchandising. Those business functions are still usually performed in or near Los Angeles, even though the runaway production phenomenon means that most films are now mostly or completely shot on location at places outside Los Angeles.

The Big Five major studios are also members of the Motion Picture Association (MPA) and the Alliance of Motion Picture and Television Producers (AMPTP).

Majors

Current

Past

Other major film studios of the 20th century included:
* United Artists (UA) (1919–1981) – one of the "Little Three" (or "major minor") studios, originally only a distributor for independent film producers, acquired by MGM in 1981; brand name was resurrected in 2019 when Annapurna Pictures and MGM renamed a distribution company, which was a joint venture between the two companies, to United Artists Releasing; revived in 2024 as a label under the Amazon MGM Studios umbrella.
* Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM) (1924–1986) – one of the Big Seven studios, acquired by Ted Turner in 1986, who sold the studio back to Kirk Kerkorian later that year while retaining MGM's pre-May 1986 library; became a mini-major studio upon the sale; emerged from bankruptcy in 2010; now owned by Amazon, which also owns and operates Amazon MGM Studios, Amazon Prime Video, Amazon Freevee, and MX Player.
* RKO Pictures (RKO) (1929–1959) – one of the Big Five studios (originally incorporated as RKO Radio Pictures), bought by Howard Hughes in 1948, was mismanaged and dismantled and was largely defunct by the 1957 studio lot sale; revived several times as an independent studio, with most recent film releases in 2012 and 2015.
* 20th Century Fox (TCF, 20CF, 20th, or Fox) (1935–2019) – one of the Big Six studios, became part of Walt Disney Studios when The Walt Disney Company acquired Fox's owner in 2019; 20th Century Fox was renamed 20th Century Studios the following year.

Instant majors

"Instant major" is a 1960s coined term for a film company that seemingly overnight had approached the status of major." In 1967, three "instant major" studios popped up, two of which were partnered with a television network theatrical film unit, with the most lasting until 1973:
* Cinerama Releasing Corporation (partnered with ABC Pictures International, the film production company of ABC)
* National General Corporation (distributor for Cinema Center Films, the film production company of CBS)
* Commonwealth United Entertainment

Mini-majors

Mini-major studios (or "mini-majors") are the larger, independent film production companies that are smaller than the major studios and attempt to compete directly with them.

Current

Past

Past mini-majors include:
* Monogram Pictures/ Allied Artists Pictures, 1967 – The current entertainment company, Allied Artists International, is considered the successor to AAP; library rights are currently split mostly between Amazon (through MGM), Warner Bros. Discovery (through Warner Bros.), and Paramount Global (through Paramount Pictures).
* New Line Cinema – purchased in 1994 by Turner Broadcasting System; TBS merged with Time Warner (now Warner Bros. Discovery) in 1996; and New Line merged with Warner Bros. in 2008.
* Relativity Media – filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy on July 30, 2015. Emerged from bankruptcy in 2016, only to re-file in May 2018, sold to UltraV Holdings
* Orion Pictures – in 1990, was considered the last of the mini-majors. Purchased in 1988 by Kluge/Metromedia; purchased in 1997 by MGM.
* Avco Embassy, 1967 – acquired by Norman Lear and Jerry Perenchio in 1982; acquired by the Coca-Cola Company in 1985; its theatrical division was acquired by Dino DeLaurentiis in 1986. Sony Pictures currently owns the television rights to most of the theatrical library and the logo, names, and trademarks through its ELP Communications subsidiary.
* The Walt Disney Company/ Walt Disney Studios – became a major studio in 1984.
* The Weinstein Company – filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy but was bought by Lantern Entertainment in 2018; assets were transferred to Spyglass Media Group, of which Warner Bros. Discovery (through Warner Bros.), Lantern Entertainment, and Lionsgate, which currently hold distribution rights to most of the TWC library, own their respective stakes.
* Republic Pictures – originally a "poverty row" B-movie producer, produced many serials and was formed by the consolidation of six minor production companies in 1935. It was rebooted in 1985. Viacom then purchased it in the early 2000s.
* FilmDistrict – merged into Focus Features (a subsidiary of Universal) in 2014; the library acquired by Content Partners LLC (through Revolution Studios) in December 2020.
* PolyGram Filmed Entertainment – sold to Seagram and folded into Universal Pictures in 1999; bulk of the pre-March 31, 1996, library sold to MGM
* Artisan Entertainment – purchased in 2003 by Lions Gate Entertainment
* Overture Films – distribution and marketing assets sold to Relativity Media in 2010; film library acquired by Lionsgate via its acquisition of Starz Inc. in December 2016
* Summit Entertainment – acquired by Lionsgate in 2012.
* The Cannon Group – purchased by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer
* Global Road Entertainment – formerly Open Road Films, filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy on September 6, 2018; by November 2018, it had reverted to Open Road, purchased by Raven Capital Management on approval as of December 19, 2018 by a Delaware bankruptcy judge.
* Miramax Films – owned by The Walt Disney Company from 1993 to 2010, was sold to Filmyard Holdings in 2010, then to beIN Media Group in 2016, which sold a 49% stake to Paramount Global (through Paramount Pictures) in 2020.
* Alchemy – filed for Chapter 7 bankruptcy on June 30, 2016.
* New World Pictures – acquired by News Corporation (then the parent company of 20th Century Fox) in 1997. The content library is held under the film studio.
* The Samuel Goldwyn Company – purchased in 1996 by John Kluge/Metromedia International, making it the sister studio to Orion Pictures, Orion; it was purchased in 1997 by MGM.
* Weintraub Entertainment Group – filed for bankruptcy in September 1990, resulting in the company folding up operations; the library is now owned by Sony Pictures (through Columbia Pictures), with Paramount Global (through Paramount Pictures) owning television and streaming distribution rights.
* TriStar Pictures – consolidated in 1987 into Columbia, was one of the partners in the joint venture that created it.
* Castle Rock Entertainment – purchased in 1993 by Turner Broadcasting System; TBS merged with WarnerMedia, Time Warner (now Warner Bros. Discovery) in 1996.
* CBS Films – folded into the CBS Entertainment Group on October 11, 2019, and absorbed into CBS Studios to produce TV films for CBS All Access (later Paramount+).
* DreamWorks Pictures – purchased by Viacom (1952–2006), Viacom; then owners of both Paramount Pictures and CBS Corporation, in 2005; distributed the films from 2005 to 2011; reformed as an independent with The Walt Disney Company distributing the live-action films under their Touchstone Pictures banner until 2016; now a label after being reorganized as Amblin Partners, in which Universal Pictures and Lionsgate Films, Lionsgate own their respective stakes.
* Turner Entertainment Co.#Divisions, Turner Pictures – purchased along with Hanna-Barbera, Castle Rock Entertainment, New Line Cinema, and Turner Entertainment Co. (including most of the pre-May 1986 Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, MGM library and US and Canadian distribution rights to the RKO Pictures, RKO Radio film library) in 1996 by Time Warner (now Warner Bros. Discovery). Currently, Warner Bros. and its subsidiaries make cartoons and movies based on Hanna-Barbera characters.
* Revolution Studios – purchased by Content Partners LLC in 2017, focuses on distribution, remake, and sequel rights to its library following the end of its six-year deal with Sony Pictures Entertainment.

Other significant, past independent entities

* Lucasfilm – purchased in 2012 by The Walt Disney Company.
* Marvel Studios/Marvel Entertainment – purchased in 2009 by The Walt Disney Company.
* Pixar, Pixar Animation Studios – purchased in 2006 by The Walt Disney Company.
* DreamWorks Animation – acquired by Comcast and its NBCUniversal subsidiary in 2016.

Significant international entities

* Gaumont Film Company (France)
* Pathé (France)
* StudioCanal (France)
* Nordisk Film (Denmark)
* Constantin Film (Germany)
* Leonine Holding, Clasart Film (Germany)
* Eros International (India)
* Toho Pictures (Japan)
* SF Studios (Sweden)
* BBC Film (United Kingdom)

History

The majors before the Golden Age

In 1909, Thomas Edison, who had been fighting in the courts for years for control of fundamental motion picture patents, won a major decision. This led to the creation of the Motion Picture Patents Company, widely known as the Trust. Comprising the eight largest U.S. film companies, it was "designed to eliminate not only independent film producers but also the country's 10,000 independent istributionexchanges and exhibitors." Though its many members did not consolidate their filmmaking operations, the New York–based Trust was arguably the first major North American movie conglomerate. The independents' fight against the Trust was led by Carl Laemmle, whose Chicago-based Laemmle Film Service, serving the Midwest and Canada, was the largest distribution exchange in North America. Laemmle's efforts were rewarded in 1912 when the U.S. government ruled that the Trust was a "corrupt and unlawful association" and must be dissolved. On June 8, 1912, Laemmle organized the merger of his production division, IMP (Independent Motion Picture Company), with several other filmmaking companies, creating the Universal Pictures, Universal Film Manufacturing Company in New York City. By the end of the year, Universal was making movies at two Los Angeles facilities: the former Nestor Film studio in Hollywood, and another studio in Edendale, Los Angeles, California, Edendale. The first Hollywood major studio was in business.

In 1918, four brothers—Harry Warner, Harry, Albert Warner, Albert, Sam Warner, Sam, and Jack L. Warner, Jack Warner—founded the Old Warner Brothers Studios, first Warner Bros. Studio on Sunset Boulevard in Hollywood. On April 4, 1923, the Warner Bros. incorporated their fledgling movie company as "Warner Bros. Pictures, Warner Bros. Pictures, Inc.". Though their first film was ''My Four Years in Germany'', Warner Bros. released their full-fledged movie ''The Jazz Singer'' in 1927. Warner Bros. were the pioneers of the sound film era as they established Vitaphone. Because of ''The Jazz Singers success (along with ''Lights of New York (1928 film), Lights of New York'', ''The Singing Fool'' and ''The Terror (1928 film), The Terror''), Warner Bros. was eventually able to acquire a Warner Bros. Studios Burbank, much larger studio in Burbank, which it began to use starting in 1928 (and which is famous for its Warner Bros. Water Tower, signature water tower). Warner Bros. eventually expanded its studio operations to Leavesden in London. Warner Bros. Studios Leavesden is the main studio in production of hit movies like the Harry Potter (film series), ''Harry Potter'' film series, ''The Dark Knight'' and the recent ones like ''The Batman (film), The Batman'' and ''Ready Player One (film), Ready Player One''.

In 1916, a second powerful Hollywood studio was established when Adolph Zukor merged his Famous Players Film Company movie production house with the Jesse L. Lasky, Jesse L. Lasky Company to form Famous Players–Lasky. The combined studio acquired Paramount Pictures as a distribution arm and eventually adopted its name. That same year, William Fox (producer), William Fox relocated his Fox Film, Fox Film Corporation from Fort Lee, New Jersey to Hollywood and began expanding.

In 1923, Walt Disney had founded the Disney Brothers Cartoon Studio and The Disney Brothers Features Company with his brother Roy O. Disney, Roy and animator Ub Iwerks. Renamed as Walt Disney Productions, Disney became a powerful independent over the next three decades focusing on animation with its shorts and films being distributed over the years by various majors; primarily Leslie B. Mace, Winkler Pictures, Universal Pictures, Celebrity Productions, Cinephone, Columbia Pictures, United Artists, United Artists Pictures and finally RKO. In its first year in 1928, Celebrity Productions and Cinephone had released its first blockbuster ''Steamboat Willie''. In the decades that followed, Disney and its associated distributors were able to achieve occasional successes, but its relatively small output and exclusive focus on G-rated films meant that it was not generally considered to be one of the majors.

The Motion Picture Theatre Owners of America and the Independent Producers' Association declared war in 1925 on what they termed a common enemy — the "film trust" of Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, Paramount, and First National Pictures, First National, which they claimed dominated the industry by not only producing and distributing motion pictures, but by entering into exhibition as well.

On October 6, 1927, Warner Bros. released ''The Jazz Singer'', starring Al Jolson, and a whole new era began, with "pictures that talked", bringing the studio to the forefront of the film industry. ''The Jazz Singer'' played to standing-room-only crowds throughout the country and earned a special Academy Award for Technical Achievement. Fox, in the forefront of sound film technology along with Warner Bros., was also acquiring a sizable circuit of movie theaters to exhibit its product. The development of sound films like ''The Jazz Singer'' near the end of the Roaring Twenties resulted in a massive rush of Americans to movie theaters to watch the astonishing new "talkies". At the peak of the fad, every person in the United States over the age of six was watching a motion picture in a theater at least once a week. The box office revenue from the first sound films is what enabled the Hollywood majors to achieve their lasting domination of the global film industry.

The majors during the Golden Age

Between late 1928, when RCA's David Sarnoff engineered the creation of the RKO Pictures, RKO (Radio-Keith-Orpheum) studio, and the end of 1949, when Paramount divested its theater chain—roughly the period considered Hollywood's Golden Age—there were eight Hollywood studios commonly regarded as the "majors". Of these eight, the so-called Big Five were integrated conglomerates, combining ownership of a production studio, distribution division, and substantial theater chain, and contracting with performers and filmmaking personnel: Loews/MGM, Paramount, Fox (which became 20th Century-Fox after a 1935 merger), Warner Bros., and RKO. The remaining majors were sometimes referred to as the "Little Three" or "major minor" studios. Two—Universal and Columbia (founded in 1924)—were organized similarly to the Big Five, except for the fact that they never owned more than small theater circuits (a consistently reliable source of profits). The third of the lesser majors, United Artists (founded in 1919), owned a few theaters and had access to production facilities owned by its principals, but it functioned primarily as a backer-distributor, loaning money to independent producers and releasing their films. During the 1930s, the eight majors averaged a total of 358 feature film releases a year; in the 1940s, the four largest companies shifted more of their resources toward high-budget productions and away from B movies, bringing the yearly average down to 288 for the decade.Finler (2003), pp. 364–67.

Among the significant characteristics of the Golden Age was the stability of the Hollywood majors, their hierarchy, and their near-complete domination of the box office. At the midpoint of the Golden Age, 1939, the Big Five had market shares ranging from 22% (MGM) to 9% (RKO); each of the Little Three had around a 7% share. In sum, the eight majors controlled 95% of the market. Ten years later, the picture was largely the same: the Big Five had market shares ranging from 22% (MGM) to 9% (RKO); the Little Three had shares ranging from 8% (Columbia) to 4% (United Artists). In sum, the eight majors controlled 96% of the market.

The majors after the Golden Age

1950s–1960s

The end of the Golden Age had been signaled by the majors' loss of a United States v. Paramount Pictures, Inc., federal antitrust case that led to the divestiture of the Big Five's theater chains. Though this had virtually no immediate effect on the eight majors' box-office domination, it somewhat leveled the playing field between the Big Five and the Little Three. In November 1951, Decca Records purchased 28% of Universal; early the following year, the studio became the first of the classic Hollywood majors to be taken over by an outside corporation, as Decca acquired majority ownership. In 1953, Disney established its own distribution division, Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures, Buena Vista Film Distribution, to handle its own product which had been largely distributed by RKO. The 1950s also saw two substantial shifts in the hierarchy of the majors: RKO, perennially the weakest of the Big Five, declined rapidly under the mismanagement of Howard Hughes, who had purchased a controlling interest in the studio in 1948. By the time Hughes sold it to the General Tire, General Tire and Rubber Company in 1955, the studio was a major by outdated reputation alone. In 1957, virtually all RKO movie operations ceased and the studio was dissolved in 1959. (Revived on a small scale in 1981, it was eventually spun off and now operates as a minor independent company.) In contrast, there was United Artists, which had long operated under the financing-distribution model the other majors were now progressively shifting toward. Under Arthur B. Krim, Arthur Krim and Robert Benjamin, who began managing the company in 1951, UA became consistently profitable. By 1956—when it released one of the biggest blockbusters of the decade, ''Around the World in Eighty Days (1956 film), Around the World in 80 Days''—it commanded a 10% market share. By the middle of the next decade, it had reached 16% and was the second-most profitable studio in Hollywood.

Despite RKO's collapse, the remaining seven majors still averaged a total yearly release slate of 253 feature films during the decade. Following MCA Inc.'s acquisition of Decca Records and the aforementioned Universal under Lew Wasserman in 1962, the later half of the 1960s were marked by four others — Paramount, United Artists, Warner Bros., and MGM — involved in a spate of corporate takeovers that left Columbia, Fox, and its eventual parent company Disney under original ownership. Gulf and Western Industries, Gulf+Western took over Paramount in 1966; and the Transamerica Corporation purchased United Artists in 1967. Warner Bros. underwent large-scale reorganization twice in two years: a 1967 merger with the Seven Arts Productions, Seven Arts company preceded a 1969 purchase by Kinney National Company, Kinney National, under Stephen J. Ross. MGM, in the process of a slow decline, changed ownership twice in the same span as well, winding up in the hands of financier Kirk Kerkorian also in 1969. The majors almost entirely abandoned low-budget production during this era, bringing the annual average of features released down to 160. The decade also saw Disney/Buena Vista commanding a prominent position in the market. Buoyed by the success of ''Mary Poppins (1964 film), Mary Poppins'', Disney achieved a 9% market share in 1964, more than Warner and its eventual subsidiary Fox. Though over the next two decades Disney/Buena Vista's share of the box-office would continue to reach this level, the studio was still not considered a major as it did not release many films, and those it did release were exclusively G-rated.

1970s–1980s

The early 1970s were difficult years for all the classic majors. Movie attendance, which had been declining steadily since the end of the Golden Age, hit an all-time low by 1971. In 1973, MGM president James T. Aubrey drastically downsized the studio, slashing its production schedule and eliminating its distribution arm (UA would distribute the studio's films for the remainder of the decade). From fifteen releases in 1973, the next year MGM was down to five; its average for the rest of the 1970s would be even lower. Like RKO in its last days under Hughes, MGM remained a major in terms of brand reputation, but little more. Disney by contrast began to ascend towards major status through a resurgence in its animated movies, beginning with ''The Rescuers'' (1977), and the studio began to enter the adult market with ''The Black Hole (1979 film), The Black Hole'' (1979), its first non-G rated film.

By the mid-1970s, the industry had rebounded and a significant philosophical shift was in progress. As the majors focused increasingly on the development of the next hoped-for blockbuster and began routinely opening each new movie in many hundreds of theaters (an approach called "saturation booking"), their collective yearly release average fell to 81 films during 1975–84. The classic set of majors was shaken further in late 1980, when the disastrously expensive flop of ''Heaven's Gate (film), Heaven's Gate'' effectively ruined United Artists. The studio was sold the following year to Kerkorian, who merged it with MGM. After a brief resurgence, the combined studio continued to decline. From 1986, MGM/UA has been at best a "mini-major", to use the present-day term.

Meanwhile, a new member was finally admitted to the club of major studios and two significant contenders emerged. With the combined output of Walt Disney Pictures, the establishment of the Touchstone Pictures brand in 1984, and increasing attention to the adult live-action market during the early 1980s, Disney/Buena Vista secured acknowledgment as a full-fledged major. Film historian Joel Finler identifies 1986 as the breakthrough year, when Disney rose to third place in market share and remained consistently competitive for a leading position thereafter.

The two emerging contenders were both newly formed companies. In 1978, Krim, Benjamin, and three other studio executives departed UA to found Orion Pictures as a joint venture with Warner Bros. It was announced optimistically as the "first major new film company in 50 years". Tri-Star Pictures was created in 1982 as a joint venture of future corporate sibling Columbia Pictures (at that time acquired by the The Coca-Cola Company, Coca-Cola Company), HBO (then owned by Warner Bros. Discovery's predecessor Time Inc.), and CBS. In 1985, Rupert Murdoch's News Corporation acquired 20th Century-Fox (dropping the hyphen), the last of both the classic Hollywood majors and the Golden Age majors to be taken over by an outside corporation; it remained independent until its 2019 sale to Disney brought back the total majors back to a "Big Five".

By 1986, the combined share of the six classic majors — Paramount, MGM/UA, Fox, Warner Bros., Columbia and Universal — fell to 64%, the lowest since the beginning of the Golden Age. Fox's future parent company Disney was in third place, behind only Paramount and Warner. Even including Disney/Buena Vista as a seventh major and adding its 10% share (only for them to acquire Fox 33 years later), the majors' control of the North American market was at a historic ebb. Orion (now completely independent of Warner) and Tri-Star were well positioned as mini-majors, each with North American market shares of around 6% and regarded by industry observers as "fully competitive with the majors", much like MGM and Lionsgate by the turn of the century. Smaller independents garnered 13%—more than any studio aside from Paramount. In 1964, by comparison, all of the companies outside of the then-seven majors and Disney had combined for a grand total of 1%. In the first edition of Finler's ''The Hollywood Story'' (1988), he wrote, "It will be interesting to see whether the old-established studios will be able to bounce back in the future, as they have done so many times before, or whether the newest developments really do reflect a fundamental change in the US movie industry for the first times since the 20s."

1990s–2000s

With the exception of MGM/UA—whose position was effectively supplanted by Disney—the old-established studios did bounce back. The aforementioned purchase of 20th Century Fox by Rupert Murdoch's News Corporation left its future parent company Disney under original ownership and presaged a new round of corporate acquisitions not long afterward. As part of that series, Columbia, Paramount and Warner Bros. received new owners once and for all while Universal changed corporate hands until the mid-2000s. Paramount's parent company Gulf and Western Industries, Gulf+Western was renamed Paramount Communications and Coca-Cola sold Columbia to Japanese electronics firm Sony in 1989, creating Sony Pictures. The following year, WarnerMedia, Warner Communications merged with Time Inc. to birth WarnerMedia, Time Warner and Universal's parent company MCA Inc., MCA was purchased by fellow Japanese electronics conglomerate Panasonic, Matsushita. At this time, both Tri-Star and Orion were essentially out of business: the former merged with Sony and Columbia, the latter bankrupt and sold to MGM. The most important contenders to emerge during the 1990s with Viacom's purchase of Paramount Communications in 1994 — New Line Cinema, Miramax, and DreamWorks SKG — were likewise sooner or later brought into the majors' fold. Shortly after, Matsushita sold MCA (and Universal) to Seagram in 1996, then Vivendi in 2000, and later NBC's parent company General Electric in 2004 to become NBCUniversal.

The development of in-house pseudo-indie subsidiaries by the conglomerates—sparked by the 1992 establishment of Sony Pictures Classics and the success of ''Pulp Fiction (film), Pulp Fiction'' (1994) on home video, significantly undermined the position of the true independents. The majors' release schedule rebounded: the six (later five) primary studio subsidiaries alone put out a total of 124 films during 2006; the three largest secondary subsidiaries (New Line, Fox Searchlight, and Focus Features) accounted for another 30. Box-office domination was fully restored: in 2006, the then-six (now five) major movie conglomerates combined for 89.8% of the North American market; Lionsgate and Weinstein were almost exactly half as successful as their 1986 mini-major counterparts, sharing 6.1%; MGM came in at 1.8%; and all of the remaining independent companies split a pool totaling 2.3%.

More developments took place among the majors' subsidiaries. The very successful animation production house Pixar, whose films were distributed by Buena Vista, was acquired by Disney also in 2006. In 2008, New Line Cinema lost its independent status within Time Warner and became a subsidiary of Warner Bros. Time Warner also announced that it would be shutting down its two specialty units, Warner Independent and Picturehouse. Also in 2008, Paramount Vantage's production, marketing, and distribution departments were folded into the parent studio, though it retained the brand for release purposes. Universal sold off its genre specialty division, Rogue Pictures, to Relativity Media in 2009.

2010–present

In January 2010, Disney closed down Miramax's operations and sold off the unit and its library that July to an investor group led by Ronald N. Tutor of the Tutor Perini construction firm and Tom Barrack of the Colony Capital private equity firm.

In January 2011, the majority of Acquisition of NBC Universal by Comcast, Universal was acquired by Comcast when acquiring 51% of NBCUniversal from General Electric before acquiring the remaining 49% and taking complete ownership in March 2013.

On December 14, 2017, The Walt Disney Company (the parent company of major film studio Walt Disney Studios) Acquisition of 21st Century Fox by Disney, announced to acquire key assets of 21st Century Fox (including fellow major film studio 20th Century Fox along with Searchlight Pictures, Fox Searchlight Pictures). After winning the bidding war for Fox against Comcast, both Disney and Fox shareholders approved the deal on July 27, 2018 and completed on March 20, 2019. The number of major film studios lowered to five for the first time since the Golden Age of Hollywood, as the era of the "Big Six" studios and Fox as a major studio for 83 years ended.

From June 14, 2018, until its acquisition by Discovery in 2022, Warner Bros. was owned by AT&T, which completed its acquisition of Time Warner, renaming it "WarnerMedia", which contained all assets owned by Warner Bros. and its subsidiaries.

On August 13, 2019, Paramount Pictures parent, Viacom, announced 2019 merger of CBS and Viacom, its reunion with CBS Corporation, and the combined company would be called Paramount Global, ViacomCBS, renamed Paramount also in 2022. The two companies previously merged in 2000 but split in 2005. The deal was completed on December 4, 2019. Meanwhile, CBS Corporation's mini-major film studio, CBS Films was folded into CBS Entertainment Group after releasing its 2019 film slate, switching its focus to creating original film content for CBS All Access.

On January 17, 2020, Disney discontinued the "Fox" name from both 20th Century Fox and Fox Searchlight Pictures and rebranded them as 20th Century Studios and Searchlight Pictures respectively, to avoid brand confusion with Fox Corporation. The "Searchlight Pictures" and "20th Century Studios" name were first seen on ''Downhill (2020 film), Downhill'' on February 14, and on ''The Call of the Wild (2020 film), The Call of the Wild'' a week later on February 21 respectively.

The studios were affected by the COVID-19 pandemic with some cinema chains closing, precipitating box-office bomb, box office flops (like Disney's ''Onward (film), Onward'' or Sony's ''Bloodshot (film), Bloodshot''). Several films were delayed (Universal and MGM's ''No Time to Die'' or Paramount's ''A Quiet Place Part II'' and even Disney's ''Black Widow (2021 film), Black Widow'' and ''Mulan (2020 film), Mulan'') and others were launched to the digital market (like Universal's ''The Invisible Man (2020 film), The Invisible Man'' and ''Trolls World Tour'' and Warner Bros.' ''Birds of Prey (2020 film), Birds of Prey'', ''Scoob'' and ''Wonder Woman 1984'').

On May 16, 2021, it was reported that AT&T was in talks with Discovery, Inc. for it to merge with and acquire Warner Bros.' parent company WarnerMedia, forming a publicly traded company that would be divided between its shareholders. The proposed spin-off and acquisition was officially announced the next day, which was structured as a Reverse Morris Trust. AT&T shareholders would receive a 71% stake in the enlarged Discovery, which would be led by its current CEO David Zaslav. As the transaction closed on April 8, 2022, Discovery renamed itself Warner Bros. Discovery and ended AT&T's investment in the entertainment business.

On the same day after the announcement of the acquisition/merger of WarnerMedia by Discovery, Inc., Discovery, Amazon entered negotiations with MGM Holdings to acquire Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. The negotiations were made directly with MGM board chairman Kevin Ulrich whose Anchorage Capital Group is a major shareholder. MGM already began to explore a potential sale of the studio since December 2020, with the COVID-19 pandemic and the domination of streaming platforms due to the closure of movie theaters as contributing factors. On May 26, 2021, it was officially announced that MGM would be acquired by Amazon for $8.45 billion, subject to regulatory approvals and other routine closing conditions; with the studio continuing to operate as a label under Amazon's existing content arm, complementing Amazon Studios and Amazon Prime Video. The acquisition closed on March 17, 2022.

On April 18, 2024, rumors began to circulate that Sony Pictures and Apollo Global Management were interested in jointly acquiring Paramount Global. Sony and Apollo presented a $26 billion all-cash offer to acquire Paramount Global on May 5, 2024. According to The New York Times, the board of directors of Paramount Global formally commenced negotiations with Sony and Apollo over the possible sale of the company. If the deal is finalized, Sony will rank third in worldwide film studio rankings, behind The Walt Disney Company and NBCUniversal. In the US and Canada alone, Sony would have a 20.81% market share. On June 3, 2024, Paramount Group reportedly agreed to change mergers from Sony to Skydance Media for $8 billion. Skydance would first acquire National Amusements, which controls 80% of the voting shares of Paramount and then pump cash into Paramount, which would then acquire Skydance. At first unsuccessful in June 2024, Skydance reached a preliminary agreement on July 2, 2024 to acquire National Amusements and Proposed merger of Skydance Media and Paramount Global, merge with Paramount, which is currently being called "New Paramount".

Historical organizational lineage

The eight Golden Age majors

The eight major film studios of the Golden Age have gone through significant ownership changes ("independent" meaning customarily identified as the primary commercial entity in its corporate structure; "purchased" meaning acquired anything from majority to total ownership). For instance, this does not include Walt Disney Studios, which despite being primarily an independent Walt Disney Animation Studios, animation studio during the Golden Age, and the Cinepix (Now Lionsgate) (for mini-major) are the only current existing major studios to remain under continuous autonomous ownership since its founding.

Universal Pictures

* Independent, 1912–1936 (Carl Laemmle, a German-born American film producer, founded Universal Pictures.)
* Standard Capital, 1936–1946 (Carl Laemmle, Laemmle retired from the movie industry and sold a controlling interest of Universal to an American businessman Lewis Rosenstiel through Standard Capital.)
* Universal Pictures#Universal International and Decca Records, Universal-International, 1946–1952 (Lewis Rosenstiel, an American businessman, acquired a controlling interest in Universal Pictures and merged it with International Pictures and Universal Pictures#Universal International and Decca Records, Universal-International, a subsidiary of Universal Pictures, Universal Pictures Company for international distribution was created)
* Decca Records, Decca, 1951–1962 (Decca Records, Decca records bought Universal-International)
* MCA Inc., 1962–1996 (MCA purchased Decca Records, Decca, that's became then a subsidiary of MCA. MCA acquired also Universal Pictures and merged with Universal officially.)
** Panasonic Corporation, Matsushita Electric, 1990–1995 (Japanese conglomerate Matsushita Electric Industrial Co. (now Panasonic) acquired MCA Inc. and with it Universal Pictures.)
** Seagram, 1995–1996 (Seagram Company Ltd. acquired a majority of 80% of MCA Inc., MCA Universal Pictures from Matsushita Electric.)
* Universal Studios, Inc., 1996 (MCA Inc., MCA is renamed and reincorporated by Seagram)
** Seagram, 1996–2000 (On December 9, 1996, the new owners dropped the MCA Inc., MCA name, the company became Universal Studios, Inc. and the parent company of Universal Pictures.)
* Vivendi, 2000 (Edgar Bronfman Jr sold a controlling interest of Seagram's entertainment division and combined those business to French water utility and media company Vivendi, and with it, Universal Studios, Inc., Universal Studios.)
* Vivendi, Vivendi Universal, 2001–2004 (created on January 8, 2001, with the merger of the Vivendi media empire with Groupe Canal+, Canal+ television networks and the acquisition of media assets of Canadian company Seagram Company Ltd, owner of Universal Studios, Inc., Universal Studios.)
* NBCUniversal, 2004–present (NBC merged with the company, formed through the combining of NBC and Vivendi Universal Entertainment)
** General Electric/Vivendi, (formed on May 11, 2004, beginning on November 8, 2004, as NBC Universal, Inc., with the merger of General Electric's NBC with Vivendi Universal's film and television subsidiary Vivendi Universal Entertainment, after GE had acquired 80% of the subsidiary, giving Vivendi a 20% share of the new company.)
*** General Electric, 2004–2011 (General Electric, GE acquired 80% of Universal Studios, Inc., Universal Studios from Vivendi as part of a larger deal that included the acquisition of Vivendi's entertainment assets, forming NBC Universal.)
*** Vivendi, (Vivendi held the remaining 20%, giving Vivendi a 20% share of the new company. with an option to sell its share in 2006.)
** Comcast/General Electric, 2011–2013 (Acquisition of NBC Universal by Comcast, Comcast acquired 51% of NBC Universal from General Electric. Comcast merged the former GE subsidiary with its own cable-television programming assets, creating the current newly reformed NBCUniversal, by purchasing shares from GE, while GE bought out Vivendi.)
** Comcast, 2013–present (Acquisition of NBC Universal by Comcast, Comcast bought the remaining 49% of NBCUniversal for $16.7 billion, since 2013, the company has been a wholly owned subsidiary of Comcast, which bought out GE's ownership stake.)

Paramount Pictures

* Independent as Famous Players Film Company, 1912–1916 (founded by Adolph Zukor and W. W. Hodkinson)
* Independent as Famous Players–Lasky, 1916–1921 (founded by Adolph Zukor and Jesse L. Lasky)
* Independent, 1922–1968 (as Paramount Pictures, the company adopted its distribution division's name and folded into it in 1933)
* Gulf and Western, Gulf+Western Industries, 1966–1989 (purchased by Gulf+Western)
** Paramount Pictures#History, Paramount Communications, 1989–1995 (Gulf+Western changed the name after selling non-entertainment assets)
* National Amusements, 1994–present (owner of the two iterations of Viacom; the first includes CBS Corporation, the second involving the split; CBS and Viacom would reunite in 2019)
** Viacom (1952–2006), Viacom, 1994–2006 (Viacom purchased Paramount)
** Viacom, 2005–2019 (Viacom split into two companies: "new" Viacom—with Paramount Pictures, MTV, BET, Nickelodeon, VH1, Comedy Central, and other cable channels—and CBS Corporation—which includes CBS Studios, CBS Television Studios; both companies are controlled by National Amusements)
** Paramount Global, 2019–present (re-merger between Viacom and CBS to form ViacomCBS, now known as Paramount Global since 2022)

United Artists (UA)

* Independent, 1919–1967 (founded by Charles Chaplin, Douglas Fairbanks, D. W. Griffith, and Mary Pickford; operational control by Arthur Krim and Robert Benjamin from 1951; fully purchased by Krim and Benjamin in 1956)
* Transamerica Corporation, Transamerica, 1967–1981 (purchased by Transamerica)
* Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, MGM, 1981–2023 (purchased by Kirk Kerkorian from Transamerica and merged into MGM)
** Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, MGM/UA Entertainment Co., 1981–1986 (United Artists purchased by Kerkorian in 1981 and merged into MGM)
** Turner Broadcasting System, 1986 (purchased by Ted Turner in 1986)
*** Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, MGM Entertainment Co., 1986
** Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, MGM/UA Communications Co., 1986–1990 (repurchased by Kerkorian seventy-four days later)
** Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, MGM-Pathe Communications, 1990–1992 (purchased by Giancarlo Parretti in 1990)
** Crédit Lyonnais, 1992–1997 (foreclosed upon by bank after Parretti defaulted)
** Tracinda Corporation, 1997–2005 (repurchased by Kerkorian)
** MGM Holdings, 2005–2023
*** Sony/Comcast/4 private equity firms, 2005–2010 (purchased by Sony, Comcast, and private investment firms—Providence Equity Partners currently owns the greatest number of shares—and privately held as a minor media company independent of Sony/Columbia)
*** Credit Suisse, JPMorgan Chase, other former bondholders (2011–2022), including Carl Icahn (2011–2012)
*** United Artists was revived in 2019 as United Artists#United Artists Releasing, United Artists Releasing, the distribution banner. (2019–2023)
*** Amazon, 2022–2023; 2024–present
* Amazon MGM Studios, 2024–present (revived on July 26, 2024 after more than a decade of dormancy)

Warner Bros.

* Independent as Warner Brothers Studio, 1918–1923 (founded by Jack L. Warner, Harry Warner, Albert Warner, and Sam Warner; was not incorporated until 1923)
* Independent, 1923–1929 (formally incorporated and renamed Warner Bros. Pictures, Incorporated; Sam Warner died in 1927)
** Warner Bros.–First National, 1929–1967 (acquired First National Pictures; syndicate led by Jack Warner, Serge Semenenko of BankBoston, First National Bank of Boston, and Charles Allen Jr.; purchased a controlling interest in 1956)
** Warner Bros.-Seven Arts, Warner Bros.–Seven Arts, 1967–1969 (purchased by and merged with Seven Arts Productions)
* Kinney National Company, Kinney, 1969–1972 (Kinney purchased Warner Bros.–Seven Arts)
** Warner Communications, 1972–1990 (Kinney spun off non-entertainment assets and changed name)
* Time-Warner, 1990–2001 (on January 10, 1990, in New York City, New York as a merger of Time Inc. and Warner Communications)
** AOL Time Warner, 2001–2003 (AOL merged with Time Warner in 2001)
** Time Warner, 2003–2018 (AOL Time Warner reverted to their original name in 2003, which remained until AT&T's acquisition in 2018, despite spinning off AOL and Time Inc.)
** WarnerMedia, 2018–2022 (Time Warner renamed after AT&T WarnerMedia#History, acquisition)
*** AT&T, 2018–2022
* Warner Bros. Discovery, 2022–present (AT&T spin-off and merged with Discovery, Inc.)

Columbia Pictures

* Independent as CBC Film Sales, 1918–1924 (founded by Harry Cohn, Joe Brandt, and Jack Cohn)
* Independent, 1924–1968 (company changes name to Columbia Pictures Corporation; goes public in 1926)
* Columbia Pictures Industries, 1968–1987 (merger between Columbia Pictures Corporation and Screen Gems. CPI becomes the parent of both companies)
** The Coca-Cola Company, 1982–1987 (purchased by Coca-Cola; TriStar Pictures, Tri-Star Pictures, a joint venture with HBO and CBS initiated in 1982—CBS drops out in 1985 and HBO in 1986)
* Columbia Pictures Entertainment, 1987–1991 (divested by Coca-Cola; Coke's entertainment business sold to Tri-Star and takes 49% in CPE)
* Sony Pictures, Sony Pictures Entertainment, 1991–present (Columbia Pictures Entertainment rebrands itself two years after purchase)
** Sony, 1989–2021 (purchased by Sony Corporation in November 1989)
** Sony Group Corporation, 2021–present (Sony reorganized)

Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM)

* Metro Pictures, 1915–1924 (founded by Richard A. Rowland, George Grombacker, and Louis B. Mayer)
* Goldwyn Pictures, 1916–1924 (founded by Samuel Goldwyn (then Goldfish) and theatre producers Edgar Selwyn, Edgar and Archibald Selwyn)
* Louis B. Mayer Pictures, 1922–1924 (founded by Louis B. Mayer; brought over Irving Thalberg from Universal as head of production)
* Loews Cineplex Entertainment, Loew's Inc., 1924–1959 (in 1924, Marcus Loew merged the first two studios and Louis B. Mayer offered up the third and was named head of MGM; controlling interest in Loew's purchased by William Fox (producer), William Fox in 1929, but was then forced to sell off interest due to stock market crash; operational control ceded by Loew's to studio management in 1957)
* Independent, 1959–1981 (fully divested by Loew's; purchased by Edgar Bronfman Sr. in 1967; purchased by Kirk Kerkorian in 1969)
* Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, MGM/UA Entertainment Co., 1981–1986 (United Artists purchased by Kerkorian in 1981 and merged into MGM)
* Turner Broadcasting System, 1986 (purchased by Ted Turner in 1986)
** Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, MGM Entertainment Co., 1986
* Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, MGM/UA Communications Co., 1986–1990 (repurchased by Kerkorian seventy-four days later)
* Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, MGM-Pathe Communications, 1990–1992 (purchased by Giancarlo Parretti in 1990)
* Crédit Lyonnais, 1992–1997 (foreclosed upon by bank after Parretti defaulted)
* Tracinda Corporation, 1997–2005 (repurchased by Kerkorian)
* MGM Holdings, 2005–2023
** Sony/Comcast/4 private equity firms, 2005–2010 (purchased by Sony, Comcast, and private investment firms—Providence Equity Partners currently owns the greatest number of shares—and privately held as a minor media company independent of Sony/Columbia)
** Credit Suisse, JPMorgan Chase, other former bondholders (2011–2022), including Carl Icahn (2011–2012)
** Amazon, 2022–present
* Amazon MGM Studios, 2023–present

RKO Radio Pictures/RKO Pictures

* Independent as Film Booking Offices of America, FBO, 1918–1928 (founded by Harry F. Robertson)
* RCA, 1928–1935 (merger engineered under RCA by its president David Sarnoff, bringing together FBO and Keith-Albee-Orpheum)
* Independent, 1935–1955 (half of RCA's interest purchased by Floyd Odlum, control split between RCA, Odlum, and Rockefeller family, Rockefeller brothers; controlling interest purchased by Odlum in 1942; controlling interest purchased by Howard Hughes in 1948; Hughes's interest purchased by Stolkin-Koolish-Ryan-Burke-Corwin syndicate in 1952; interest repurchased by Hughes in 1953; studio nearly fully purchased by Hughes in 1954)
* General Tire, General Tire and Rubber, 1955–1984 (purchased by General Tire and Rubber—coupled with General Tire's broadcasting operation as RKO Teleradio Pictures; production and distribution halted in 1957; movie business dissolved in 1959 and RKO Teleradio renamed RKO General; RKO General establishes RKO Pictures as production subsidiary in 1981)
* GenCorp, 1984–1987 (reorganization creates holding company with RKO General and General Tire as primary subsidiaries)
* Wesray Capital Corporation, 1987–1989 (spun off from RKO General, purchased by Wesray—controlled by William E. Simon and Ray Chambers—and merged with amusement park operations to form RKO/Six Flags Entertainment)
* Independent as RKO Pictures LLC, 1989–present (owned by Ted Hartley, who also is the CEO. As of 2015, the company's recent films released were ''A Late Quartet'' and ''Barely Lethal'')

20th Century Fox/20th Century Studios

* Fox Film, 1915–1935 (founded by William Fox (producer), William Fox)
* Twentieth Century Pictures, 20th Century Pictures, 1933–1935 (founded by Joseph Schenck and Darryl F. Zanuck)
* Independent, 1935–1985 (merged both companies in 1935 as 20th Century-Fox; fully purchased by Marc Rich and Marvin Davis in 1981 with the hyphen removed; Rich's interest purchased by Davis in 1984; half of Davis's interest purchased by Rupert Murdoch's News Corporation in March 1985)
* News Corporation, 1985–2013 (purchased the remainder of Davis's shares in September)
* 21st Century Fox, 2013–2019 (renamed media conglomerate when News Corporation split into two companies on June 28, 2013)
* The Walt Disney Company, 2019–present (Disney acquired 20th Century Fox as part of a Acquisition of 21st Century Fox by Disney, $71.3 billion purchase of their owner 21st Century Fox, which was announced on December 14, 2017, and completed on March 20, 2019; was renamed 20th Century Studios by January 17, 2020)

See also

* Alliance of Motion Picture and Television Producers
* Concentration of media ownership
* Media conglomerate
* Media cross-ownership in the United States
* Motion Picture Association
* List of film production companies
* List of animation studios
* List of streaming media services
* Lists of films by studio
* List of film production companies in India
* List of home video companies
* Major record labels, with a "big three"

References

Sources

* Cook, David A. (2000). ''Lost Illusions: American Cinema in the Shadow of Watergate and Vietnam, 1970–1979'' (Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press). .
* Eames, John Douglas (1985). ''The Paramount Story'' (New York: Crown). .
* Finler, Joel W. (1988). ''The Hollywood Story'', 1st ed. (New York: Crown). .
* Finler, Joel W. (2003). ''The Hollywood Story'', 3d ed. (London and New York: Wallflower). .
* Hirschhorn, Clive (1983). ''The Universal Story'' (London: Crown). .
* Hirschhorn, Clive (1999). ''The Columbia Story'' (London: Hamlyn). .
* Jewell, Richard B., with Vernon Harbin (1982). ''The RKO Story'' (New York: Arlington House/Crown). .
* Schatz, Thomas (1998 [1989]). ''The Genius of the System: Hollywood Filmmaking in the Studio Era'' (London: Faber and Faber). .
* Thomas, Tony, and Aubrey Solomon (1985). ''The Films of 20th Century-Fox'' (Secaucus, N.J.: Citadel). .

External links

*
*

{{Film genres

Major film studios,
Film studios in Southern California, *
Film distributors of the United States, *
Anti-corporate activism