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Khandoba (
IAST The International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration (IAST) is a transliteration scheme that allows the lossless romanisation of Brahmic family, Indic scripts as employed by Sanskrit and related Indic languages. It is based on a scheme that ...
: Khaṇḍobā), also known as Martanda Bhairava and Malhari, is a
Hindu Hindus (; ; also known as Sanātanīs) are people who religiously adhere to Hinduism, also known by its endonym Sanātana Dharma. Jeffery D. Long (2007), A Vision for Hinduism, IB Tauris, , pp. 35–37 Historically, the term has also be ...
deity worshiped generally as a manifestation of
Shiva Shiva (; , ), also known as Mahadeva (; , , Help:IPA/Sanskrit, ɐɦaːd̪eːʋɐh and Hara, is one of the Hindu deities, principal deities of Hinduism. He is the God in Hinduism, Supreme Being in Shaivism, one of the major traditions w ...
mainly in the
Deccan Plateau The Deccan is a plateau extending over an area of and occupies the majority of the Indian peninsula. It stretches from the Satpura Range, Satpura and Vindhya Ranges in the north to the northern fringes of Tamil Nadu in the south. It is bound ...
of
India India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, seventh-largest country by area; the List of countries by population (United Nations), most populous country since ...
, especially in the state of
Maharashtra Maharashtra () is a state in the western peninsular region of India occupying a substantial portion of the Deccan Plateau. It is bordered by the Arabian Sea to the west, the Indian states of Karnataka and Goa to the south, Telangana to th ...
and
North Karnataka North Karnataka (kannada: ಉತ್ತರ ಕರ್ನಾಟಕ ''Transliteration: Uttara Karnataka'') is a geographical region in Deccan plateau from elevation that constitutes the region of the Karnataka state in India and the region consi ...
. He is the most popular
Kuladevata A ''kuladevata'' (), also known as a ''kuladaivaṃ'' (), is an ancestral tutelary deity in Hinduism and Jainism. Such a deity is often the object of one's devotion (''bhakti''), and is coaxed to watch over one's clan (''kula''), gotra, family, ...
(family deity) in
Maharashtra Maharashtra () is a state in the western peninsular region of India occupying a substantial portion of the Deccan Plateau. It is bordered by the Arabian Sea to the west, the Indian states of Karnataka and Goa to the south, Telangana to th ...
.Singh p.ix He is also the patron deity of some Kshatriya Marathas (warriors), farming castes, shepherd community and
Brahmin Brahmin (; ) is a ''Varna (Hinduism), varna'' (theoretical social classes) within Hindu society. The other three varnas are the ''Kshatriya'' (rulers and warriors), ''Vaishya'' (traders, merchants, and farmers), and ''Shudra'' (labourers). Th ...
(priestly)
castes A caste is a fixed social group into which an individual is born within a particular system of social stratification: a caste system. Within such a system, individuals are expected to marry exclusively within the same caste (endogamy), foll ...
as well as several of the hunter/gatherer tribes that are native to the hills and forests of this region. The sect of Khandoba has linkages with
Hindu Hindus (; ; also known as Sanātanīs) are people who religiously adhere to Hinduism, also known by its endonym Sanātana Dharma. Jeffery D. Long (2007), A Vision for Hinduism, IB Tauris, , pp. 35–37 Historically, the term has also be ...
and Jain traditions, and also assimilates all communities irrespective of
caste A caste is a Essentialism, fixed social group into which an individual is born within a particular system of social stratification: a caste system. Within such a system, individuals are expected to marry exclusively within the same caste (en ...
, including
Muslim Muslims () are people who adhere to Islam, a Monotheism, monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God ...
s. The cult of Khandoba as a folk deity dates at least to 12th century. Khandoba emerged as a composite god possessing the attributes of Shiva,
Bhairava Bhairava (, ), or Kāla Bhairava, is a Shaivite and Vajrayāna deity worshipped by Hindus and Buddhists. In Shaivism, he is a powerful manifestation, or avatar, of Shiva.Kramrisch, Stella (1994). ''The Presence of Śiva''. Princeton, NJ: P ...
,
Surya Surya ( ; , ) is the Sun#Dalal, Dalal, p. 399 as well as the solar deity in Hinduism. He is traditionally one of the major five deities in the Smarta tradition, Smarta tradition, all of whom are considered as equivalent deities in the Panchaya ...
and
Kartikeya Kartikeya (/Sanskrit phonology, kɑɾt̪ɪkejə/; ), also known as Skanda (Sanskrit phonology, /skən̪d̪ə/), Subrahmanya (/Sanskrit phonology, sʊbɾəɦməɲjə/, /ɕʊ-/), Shanmukha (Sanskrit phonology, /ɕɑnmʊkʰə/) and Murugan ...
(Skanda). Khandoba is sometimes identified with Mallanna of
Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh (ISO 15919, ISO: , , AP) is a States and union territories of India, state on the East Coast of India, east coast of southern India. It is the List of states and union territories of India by area, seventh-largest state and th ...
and Mailara of
Karnataka Karnataka ( ) is a States and union territories of India, state in the southwestern region of India. It was Unification of Karnataka, formed as Mysore State on 1 November 1956, with the passage of the States Reorganisation Act, 1956, States Re ...
. Khandoba is depicted either in the form of a
linga A lingam ( , lit. "sign, symbol or mark"), sometimes referred to as linga or Shiva linga, is an abstract or aniconic representation of the Hindu god Shiva in Shaivism. The word ''lingam'' is found in the Upanishads and epic literature, wher ...
, or as an image of a warrior riding on a horse. The foremost centre of Khandoba worship is the Khandoba temple of
Jejuri Jejuri (Marathi pronunciation: ͡ʒed͡zuɾiː is a city and a municipal council in the Pune district of Maharashtra, India. Khandoba Mandir is an important Hindu temple to the Hindu Lord Khandoba, one of the most visited tirtha (holy pla ...
in Maharashtra. The legends of Khandoba, found in the text ''Malhari Mahatmya'' and also narrated in folk songs, revolve around his victory over demons Mani-malla and his marriages.


Etymology and other names

The name ''Khandoba'' comes from the words ''
khadga The Khadga dynasty () was a Buddhist dynasty which ruled the areas of Vanga and Samatata in ancient Bengal from 625 CE to 716 CE. Chronologically, the dynasty emerged as a powerful kingdom of Bengal between the fall of Gauda Kingdom and the ris ...
'' (sword), the weapon used by Khandoba to kill the demons, and the suffix ''ba'' (father). Another name ''Khanderaya'' means "king Khandoba". Another variant is ''Khanderao'', where the suffix '' rao'' (king) is used. In
Sanskrit Sanskrit (; stem form ; nominal singular , ,) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in northwest South Asia after its predecessor languages had Trans-cultural ...
texts, Khandoba is known as Martanda Bhairava, a combination of '' Martanda'' (an epithet of the solar deity
Surya Surya ( ; , ) is the Sun#Dalal, Dalal, p. 399 as well as the solar deity in Hinduism. He is traditionally one of the major five deities in the Smarta tradition, Smarta tradition, all of whom are considered as equivalent deities in the Panchaya ...
) and Shiva's fierce form
Bhairava Bhairava (, ), or Kāla Bhairava, is a Shaivite and Vajrayāna deity worshipped by Hindus and Buddhists. In Shaivism, he is a powerful manifestation, or avatar, of Shiva.Kramrisch, Stella (1994). ''The Presence of Śiva''. Princeton, NJ: P ...
. The name ''Mallari'' or ''Malhari'' is split as ''Malla'' and ''ari'' (enemy), thus meaning "enemy of the demon Malla". The ''Malhari Mahatmya'' records Martanda Bhairava, pleased with the bravery of Malla, takes the name "Mallari" (the enemy of Malla). Other variants include ''Malanna'' (''Mallanna'') and ''Mailara'' (''Mailar''). Other names include ''Khandu Gavda'', ''Mhalsa-kant'' ("husband of Mhalsa") and ''Jejurica Vani''.


Iconography

In a popular oleograph representation of Khandoba,Stanley in Hiltebeitel p.284 Mhalsa is seated in front of Khandoba on his white horse. Mhalsa is piercing a demon's chest with a spear, while a dog is biting his thigh and the horse is hitting his head. The other demon is grabbing the reins of the horse and attacking Khandoba with a club as Khandoba is dismounting the horse and attacking the demon with his sword. In other representations, Khandoba is seen seated on a horse with the heads of demons trod under the horse's hooves or their heads under Khandoba's knees. In
murti In the Hinduism, Hindu tradition, a ''murti'' (, ) is a devotional image, such as a statue or icon, of a Hindu deities, deity or Hindu saints, saint used during ''Puja (Hinduism), puja'' and/or in other customary forms of actively expressing d ...
s (icons), Khandoba or Mailara is depicted as having four arms, carrying a ''
damaru A damaru (, ; Tibetan languages, Tibetan ཌ་མ་རུ་ or རྔ་ཆུང) is a small two-headed drum, used in Hinduism and Tibetan Buddhism. In Hinduism, the damaru is known as the instrument of the Hindu deity Shiva, associated wi ...
'' (drum), t''rishula'' (trident), ''bhandara-patra'' (turmeric powder-filled bowl) and ''khadga'' (sword). Khandoba's images are often dressed as a
Maratha The Marathi people (; Marathi: , ''Marāṭhī lōk'') or Marathis (Marathi: मराठी, ''Marāṭhī'') are an Indo-Aryan ethnolinguistic group who are native to Maharashtra in western India. They natively speak Marathi, an Indo-A ...
sardar Sardar, also spelled as Sardaar (, , 'commander', literally 'headmaster'), is a title of royal family, royalty and nobility that was originally used to denote princes, noblemen, chiefs, kings and other Aristocracy (class), aristocrats. It ha ...
,Sontheimer in Hiltebeitel p.303 or a Muslim
pathan Pashtuns (, , ; ;), also known as Pakhtuns, or Pathans, are an Iranic ethnic group primarily residing in southern and eastern Afghanistan and northwestern Pakistan. They were historically also referred to as Afghans until 1964 after the ...
. Often, Khandoba is depicted as a warrior seated on horseback with one or both of his wives and accompanied with one or more dogs.Stanley (Nov. 1977) p. 32 He is also worshipped as the aniconic
linga A lingam ( , lit. "sign, symbol or mark"), sometimes referred to as linga or Shiva linga, is an abstract or aniconic representation of the Hindu god Shiva in Shaivism. The word ''lingam'' is found in the Upanishads and epic literature, wher ...
, the symbol of Shiva. Often in Khandoba temples, both representations of Khandoba — the aniconic linga and the anthropomorphic horseback form.


Legends

Legends of Khandoba generally narrate about the battle between the deity and demons Malla and Mani. The principle written source of the legend is ''Malhari Mahatmya'' (''Mallari Mahatmya''), which claims to be from the chapter ''Kshetra-kanda'' of the
Sanskrit Sanskrit (; stem form ; nominal singular , ,) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in northwest South Asia after its predecessor languages had Trans-cultural ...
text ''
Brahmanda Purana The ''Brahmanda Purana'' () is a Sanskrit text and one of the eighteen major Puranas, a genre of Hindu texts. It is listed as the eighteenth Maha-Purana in almost all the anthologies. The text is also referred in medieval Indian literature as th ...
'', but is not included in standard editions of the Purana. R.C. Dhere and Sontheimer suggests that the Sanskrit ''Mahatmya'' was composed around 1460–1510 AD, mostly by a
Deshastha Brahmin Deshastha Brahmin is a Hinduism, Hindu Brahmin caste, subcaste mainly from the Indian state of Maharashtra and North Karnataka. Other than these states, according to authors K. S. Singh, Gregory Naik and Pran Nath Chopra, Deshastha Brahmins a ...
, to whom Khandoba is the family deity. A version is also available in
Marathi Marathi may refer to: *Marathi people, an Indo-Aryan ethnolinguistic group of Maharashtra, India **Marathi people (Uttar Pradesh), the Marathi people in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh *Marathi language, the Indo-Aryan language spoken by the Mar ...
by Siddhapal Kesasri (1585).Sontheimer in Bakker p.105 Other sources include the later texts of ''Jayadri Mahatmya'' and ''Martanda Vijaya'' by Gangadhara (1821)Sontheimer in Hiltebeitel p.330 and the oral stories of the Vaghyas, bards of the god. The legend recounts that the demon Malla and his younger brother Mani, who had gained the boon of invincibility from the god
Brahma Brahma (, ) is a Hindu god, referred to as "the Creator" within the Trimurti, the triple deity, trinity of Para Brahman, supreme divinity that includes Vishnu and Shiva.Jan Gonda (1969)The Hindu Trinity, Anthropos, Bd 63/64, H 1/2, pp. 212– ...
, create chaos on the earth and torment the sages. When the seven sages approach Shiva for protection, Shiva assumes the form (
avatar Avatar (, ; ) is a concept within Hinduism that in Sanskrit literally means . It signifies the material appearance or incarnation of a powerful deity, or spirit on Earth. The relative verb to "alight, to make one's appearance" is sometimes u ...
) of Martanda Bhairava (as the ''Mahatmya'' calls Khandoba) on Chaitra Shuddha Poornima at Adimailar, Mailapura near
Bidar Bidar ( ) is a city and headquarters of the Bidar district in Karnataka state of India. Bidar is a prominent place on the archaeological map of India, it is well known for architectural, historical religious and rich heritage sites. Pictures ...
. He rides the
Nandi Nandi may refer to: People * Nandy (surname), Indian surname * Nandi (mother of Shaka) (1760–1827), daughter of Bhebe of the Langeni tribe * Onandi Lowe (born 1974), Jamaican footballer nicknamed Nandi * Nandi Bushell (born 2010), South Afr ...
bull, leading an army of the gods. Martanda Bhairava is described as shining like gold and the Sun, covered in turmeric (''Haridra''), three-eyed and with a crescent moon on his forehead. The demon army is slaughtered by the gods; finally Khandoba kills Malla and Mani. While dying, Mani offers his white horse to Khandoba as an act of repentance and asks for a boon. The boon is that he be present in every shrine of Khandoba, that human-kind is bettered and that he be given an offering of goat flesh. The boon is granted, and thus he transforms a
demigod A demigod is a part-human and part-divine offspring of a deity and a human, or a human or non-human creature that is accorded divine status after death, or someone who has attained the "divine spark" (divine illumination). An immortality, immor ...
. Malla, when offered a boon, asks for the destruction of the world and human-flesh. Angered by the demon's request, Khandoba decapitates him, and his head falls at the temple stairs where it is trampled by the devotees feet. The legend further describes how two Lingas appeared at Prempuri, the place where the demons were killed. Oral stories continue the process of ''
Sanskritization Sanskritisation (or Sanskritization) is a term in sociology which refers to the process by which castes or tribes placed lower in the caste hierarchy seek upward mobility by emulating the rituals and practices of the dominant castes or upper c ...
'' of Khandoba — his elevation from a folk deity to Shiva, a deity of the classical Hindu pantheon — that was initiated by the texts. Khandoba's wives Mhalsa and Banai are also identified with Shiva's classical Hindu wife,
Parvati Parvati (, , IPA: /Sanskrit phonology, pɑɾʋət̪iː/), also known as Uma (, , IPA: Sanskrit phonology, /ʊmɑː/) and Gauri (, , IPA: /Sanskrit phonology, gə͡ʊɾiː/), is one of the principal goddesses in Hinduism, revered as the Devi, ...
, and
Ganga The Ganges ( ; in India: Ganga, ; in Bangladesh: Padma, ). "The Ganges Basin, known in India as the Ganga and in Bangladesh as the Padma, is an international which goes through India, Bangladesh, Nepal and China." is a trans-boundary riv ...
respectively. Hegadi Pradhan, the minister and brother-in-law of Khandoba and brother of Lingavat Vani Mhalsa, the faithful dog that helps Khandoba kill the demons, the horse given by Mani and the demon brothers are considered avatars of
Vishnu Vishnu (; , , ), also known as Narayana and Hari, is one of the Hindu deities, principal deities of Hinduism. He is the supreme being within Vaishnavism, one of the major traditions within contemporary Hinduism, and the god of preservation ( ...
, Nandi and the demons Madhu-Kaitabha respectively. Other myth variants narrate that Khandoba defeats a single demon named Manimalla, who offers his white horse, sometimes called Mani, to the god. Other legends depict Mhalsa (or Parvati) and Banai or Banu (or Ganga) as futilely helping Khandoba in the battle to collect the blood of Mani, every drop of which creates a new demon. Finally, the dog of Khandoba swallows all the blood. Sometimes, Mhalsa, or rarely Banai, is described as seated behind Khandoba on the horse and fighting with a sword or spear. The legends portray Khandoba as a king who rules from his fortress of Jejuri and holds court where he distributes gold. Also, king Khandoba goes on hunting expeditions, which often turn into "erotic adventures", and subsequent marriages.Sontheimer in Feldhaus p.116


Wives

Khandoba has several wives from different communities, who serve as cultural links between the god and the communities;
Mhalsa Mhalsa (Marathi: म्हाळसा IAST: Mhāḷasā), also spelled as Mhalasa or Mahalasa, महालसा is a Hindu goddess. Mhalsa is worshipped as the consort of the folk god Khandoba, a form of the god Shiva. In this tradition, she is ...
and Banai (Banu, Banubai) being the most important. While Khandoba's first wife Mhalsa is from the
Lingayat The Lingayats are a monotheistic religious denomination of Hinduism. Lingayats are also known as , , , . Lingayats are known for their unique practice of Ishtalinga worship, where adherents carry a personal linga symbolizing a constant, intim ...
merchant (Vani) community, his second wife Banai is a
Dhangar The Dhangars are caste of people found in the Indian states of Maharashtra, northern Karnataka, Goa, Madhya Pradesh . They are referred to as Gavli Dhangars in northern Maharashtra ( Khandesh region) and the forested hill tracts of India's We ...
(shepherd caste). Mhalsa has had a regular ritualistic marriage with Khandoba. Banai, on the other hand, has a love marriage by capture with the god. Mhalsa is described as jealous and a good cook; Banai is erotic, resolute, but does not even know how to cook. Often folk songs tell of their quarrels. Mhalsa represents "culture" and Banai "nature". The god king Khandoba stands between them. Khandoba's third wife, Rambhai Shimpin, is a tailor woman who was a heavenly nymph or '' devangana'' and is sometimes identified with Banai. She is a prototype of the Muralis — the girls "married" to Khandoba. Rambhai is worshipped as a goddess whom Khandoba visits after his hunt. She is also localised, being said to come from the village from Dhalewadi, near Jejuri. The fourth wife Phulai Malin, from the gardener or
Mali caste The Mali are an occupational caste found among the Hindus who traditionally worked as gardeners and florists. They also call themselves Phul Mali due to their occupation of growing flowers. The Mali are found throughout North India, East India ...
, She was a particular Murali and is thus a deified devotee of Khandoba. She is visited by him at "Davna Mal" (field of
southernwood ''Artemisia abrotanum'', the southernwood, lad's love, or southern wormwood, is a species of flowering plant in the sunflower family. It is native to Eurasia and Africa but naturalized in scattered locations in North America. Other common name ...
, a herb said to be dear to Khandoba). The fifth wife, Candai Bhagavin, is a
Teli Teli is a caste traditionally occupied in the oil pressing and trade in India, Nepal, and Pakistan. Members may be either Hindu or Muslim; Muslim Teli are called Roshandaar or Teli Malik. India's Prime minister Narendra Modi is from Teli c ...
n, a member of the oilpresser caste. She is recognized as a Muslim by the Muslims. Apart from these, Muralis — girls offered to Khandoba — are considered as wives or concubines of the god.Stanley (Nov. 1977) p. 33


Other associations and identifications

Mallana (Mallikaarjuna) of Andhra Pradesh and Mailara of Karnataka are sometimes identified with Khandoba (Mallari, Malhari, Mairala). Khandoba is also associated with
Bhairava Bhairava (, ), or Kāla Bhairava, is a Shaivite and Vajrayāna deity worshipped by Hindus and Buddhists. In Shaivism, he is a powerful manifestation, or avatar, of Shiva.Kramrisch, Stella (1994). ''The Presence of Śiva''. Princeton, NJ: P ...
, who is connected with Brāhmanahatya (murder of a Brahmin).Sontheimer in Hiltebeitel p. 300 Devotees emphasize that Khandoba is a full avatar of Shiva, and not a partial avatar like Bhairava or
Virabhadra Virabhadra (), also rendered Veerabhadra, Veerabathira, and Veerabathiran, is a fierce form of the Hindu god Shiva. He is created by the wrath of Shiva, when the deity hurls a lock of his matted hair upon the ground, upon hearing of the self- ...
. He accepts the attributes of the demon king — his horse, weapons and royal insignia. Sontheimer stresses the association of Khandoba with clay and
termite Termites are a group of detritivore, detritophagous Eusociality, eusocial cockroaches which consume a variety of Detritus, decaying plant material, generally in the form of wood, Plant litter, leaf litter, and Humus, soil humus. They are dist ...
mounds. Oral legends tell of Khandoba's ''murti''s being found in termite mounds or "made of earth". According to Sontheimer, Martanda Bhairava (Khandoba) is a combination of the sun god
Surya Surya ( ; , ) is the Sun#Dalal, Dalal, p. 399 as well as the solar deity in Hinduism. He is traditionally one of the major five deities in the Smarta tradition, Smarta tradition, all of whom are considered as equivalent deities in the Panchaya ...
and Shiva, who is associated with the moon. Martanda ("blazing orb") is a name of Surya, while Bhairava is a form of Shiva.Stanley (Nov. 1977) p. 33 Sundays, gold and turmeric, which are culturally associated with the sun, form an important part of the rituals of Khandoba. Sontheimer associates the worship of the Sun as termite mounds for fertility and his role as a healer to Khandoba's role as granter of fertility in marriages and to the healing powers of turmeric, which the latter holds.Sontheimer in Bakker p.113 Another theory identifies
Kartikeya Kartikeya (/Sanskrit phonology, kɑɾt̪ɪkejə/; ), also known as Skanda (Sanskrit phonology, /skən̪d̪ə/), Subrahmanya (/Sanskrit phonology, sʊbɾəɦməɲjə/, /ɕʊ-/), Shanmukha (Sanskrit phonology, /ɕɑnmʊkʰə/) and Murugan ...
(Skanda) with Khandoba. The hypotheses of the theory rests upon the similarities between Skanda and Khandoba, namely their association with mountains and war, similarity of their names and weapons (the lance of Skanda and the sword of Khandoba) and both having two principal wives. Also the festivals for both deities, Champa Sashthi and Skanda Sashthi respectively for Khandoba and Skanda fall on the same day. Other symbols associated with Khandoba are the dog and horse.Sontheimer in Bakker p.114


Worship

Though Shiva is worshipped across Maharashtra in his original form, some Maharashtrian communities prefer to worship him in form of his avatars, Khandoba being the most popular.Stanley (Nov. 1977) p. 31 He is the most popular
Kuladevata A ''kuladevata'' (), also known as a ''kuladaivaṃ'' (), is an ancestral tutelary deity in Hinduism and Jainism. Such a deity is often the object of one's devotion (''bhakti''), and is coaxed to watch over one's clan (''kula''), gotra, family, ...
(family deity) in
Maharashtra Maharashtra () is a state in the western peninsular region of India occupying a substantial portion of the Deccan Plateau. It is bordered by the Arabian Sea to the west, the Indian states of Karnataka and Goa to the south, Telangana to th ...
. One of the most widely worshipped gods of the
Deccan The Deccan is a plateau extending over an area of and occupies the majority of the Indian peninsula. It stretches from the Satpura and Vindhya Ranges in the north to the northern fringes of Tamil Nadu in the south. It is bound by the mount ...
plateau, Khandoba is considered as "the premier god of ''Sakama bhakti'' (wish-granting devotion) and one of the most powerful deities responsive to vows (''navas'')". He is worshipped by the vast majority of Marathi Hindu people from all strata of that society. He is the patron deity of warrior, farming, herding as well as some
Brahmin Brahmin (; ) is a ''Varna (Hinduism), varna'' (theoretical social classes) within Hindu society. The other three varnas are the ''Kshatriya'' (rulers and warriors), ''Vaishya'' (traders, merchants, and farmers), and ''Shudra'' (labourers). Th ...
(priest)
castes A caste is a fixed social group into which an individual is born within a particular system of social stratification: a caste system. Within such a system, individuals are expected to marry exclusively within the same caste (endogamy), foll ...
, the hunters and gatherers of the hills and forests, merchants and kings. The devotees of Khandoba in the Deccan principally consists of
Maratha The Marathi people (; Marathi: , ''Marāṭhī lōk'') or Marathis (Marathi: मराठी, ''Marāṭhī'') are an Indo-Aryan ethnolinguistic group who are native to Maharashtra in western India. They natively speak Marathi, an Indo-A ...
s and Kunabis, shepherd
Dhangar The Dhangars are caste of people found in the Indian states of Maharashtra, northern Karnataka, Goa, Madhya Pradesh . They are referred to as Gavli Dhangars in northern Maharashtra ( Khandesh region) and the forested hill tracts of India's We ...
s, village guards and watchmen
Ramoshi The Ramoshi are an Indian community found largely in Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, and Karnataka. They are classified as a Backward Community by the government of India. History The Ramoshi in Maharashtra were earlier known as Vedan. They were ...
s — a " Denotified tribe", the former " untouchable"
Mahar Mahar is one of the Indian caste found largely in the state of Maharashtra and neighbouring areas. Most of the Mahar community followed B. R. Ambedkar in converting to Buddhism in the middle of the 20th century. As of 2017 the Mahar caste w ...
s and Mangs, fisher-folk
Kolis The Koli is an Indian caste that is predominantly found in India, but also in Pakistan and Nepal. Koli is an agriculturist caste of Gujarat but in coastal areas they also work as fishermen along with agriculture. In the beginning of 20th ce ...
, '' balutedar'' castes like gardeners (''Mali'') and tailors (''Shimpi''), though it also includes of a few
Brahmin Brahmin (; ) is a ''Varna (Hinduism), varna'' (theoretical social classes) within Hindu society. The other three varnas are the ''Kshatriya'' (rulers and warriors), ''Vaishya'' (traders, merchants, and farmers), and ''Shudra'' (labourers). Th ...
s and even some
Muslim Muslims () are people who adhere to Islam, a Monotheism, monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God ...
s.Stanley in Hiltebeitel p.271 Although Brahmin presence is nominal in his sect,
Deshastha Brahmin Deshastha Brahmin is a Hinduism, Hindu Brahmin caste, subcaste mainly from the Indian state of Maharashtra and North Karnataka. Other than these states, according to authors K. S. Singh, Gregory Naik and Pran Nath Chopra, Deshastha Brahmins a ...
s, as well as the Kokanastha Brahmins - in Nashik and Satara - do worship Khandoba, some imitating the Deshastha Brahmins. The Deshastha Brahmins,
Chandraseniya Kayastha Prabhu Chandraseniya Kayastha Prabhu (CKP) or historically and commonly known as Chandraseniya Prabhu or just Prabhu is a caste mainly found in Gujarat and Maharashtra. Historically, they made equally good warriors, statesmen as well as writers. Th ...
s, as well as the royal families like Gaikwads and
Holkar The Holkars (pronunciation: o(ː)ɭkəɾ were the ruling house of the Indore State of the Maratha Confederacy, and earlier held the rank of Subahdar under Peshwa Baji Rao I of the Maratha Empire. When the Maratha Confederacy began to we ...
s worship Khandoba as their Kuladevata. He is also worshipped by Jains and
Lingayat The Lingayats are a monotheistic religious denomination of Hinduism. Lingayats are also known as , , , . Lingayats are known for their unique practice of Ishtalinga worship, where adherents carry a personal linga symbolizing a constant, intim ...
s. He is viewed as a "king" of his followers.


Rituals and modes of worship

Khandoba is believed to be a ''kadak'' (fierce) deity, who causes troubles if not propitiated properly as per the family duties.Sontheimer in Hiltebeitel pp.332–3 Khandoba is worshipped with
Turmeric Turmeric (), or ''Curcuma longa'' (), is a flowering plant in the ginger family Zingiberaceae. It is a perennial, rhizomatous, herbaceous plant native to the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia that requires temperatures between and high ...
(''Bhandār''), Bel fruit-leaves, onions and other vegetables.Underhill p.111 The deity is offered ''
puran poli Puran poli is an Indian sweet flatbread that is popular in South India and the state of Maharashtra. It is also known as puran puri, holige, obbattu, bobbatlu, poley, bakshamulu, and boli. Names The various names for the flatbread include ...
'' – a sweet or a simpler dish called ''bharit rodga'' of onion and brinjal. A strict vegetarian ''naivedya'' (offering of food) is offered to Khandoba in the temples, although he is regarded by many devotees as a non-vegetarian. Goat flesh is also offered to the deity, although this is done outside the temple as meat is forbidden inside the temple. An important part of the Khandoba-sect is ''navas'', a vow to perform service to the god in return for a boon of good harvest, male child, financial success etc. On fulfilment of the ''navas'', Khandoba was offered children or some devotees would afflict pain by hook-swinging or fire-walking.Stanley in Hiltebeitel p.293 This type of worship using ''navas'' is called ''Sakama Bhakti'' – worship done with an expectation of return and is considered "to be of a lower esteem".Burman p.1227 But the most faithful ''bhakta''s (devotees) are considered to be greedy only for the company of their Lord, Khandoba is also called ''bhukela'' – hungry for such true ''bhakta''s in the ''Martanda Vijaya''.Sontheimer in Hiltebeitel p.313 Boys called ''Vāghyā'' (or ''Waghya'', literally "tigers") and girls called ''Muraḹi'' were formerly dedicated to Khandoba, but now the practice of marrying girls to Khandoba is illegal. The Vaghyas act as the
bard In Celtic cultures, a bard is an oral repository and professional story teller, verse-maker, music composer, oral historian and genealogist, employed by a patron (such as a monarch or chieftain) to commemorate one or more of the patron's a ...
s of Khandoba and identify themselves with the dogs of Khandoba, while Muralis act as his courtesans ('' devangana''s — nymphs or
devadasi In India, a devadasi is a female artist who is dedicated to the worship and service of a deity or a temple for the rest of her life. The dedication takes place in a ceremony that is somewhat similar to a marriage ceremony. In addition to taki ...
s). The Vaghyas and their female counterparts Muralis sing and dance in honour of Khandoba and narrate his stories on ''jagaran''s — all night song-festivals, which are sometimes held after ''navas'' fulfilment. Another custom was ritual-suicide by ''Vira''s (heroes) in the cult.Sontheimer in Hiltebeitel p.308 According to legend, an "untouchable" Mang (Matanga) sacrificed himself for the foundation of the temple at Jejuri to persuade Khandoba to stay at Jejuri forever. Other practices in the cult include the belief that Khandoba possesses the body of a Vaghya or ''devrsi'' (shaman). Another ritual in the cult is an act of chain-breaking in fulfilment of a vow or an annual family rite; the chain is identified with the snake around Shiva's neck, which was cut by the demons in the fight. Another rite associated with the family duties to please Khandoba is the ''tali bharne'', which is to be performed every full moon day. A ''tali'' (dish) is filled with coconuts, fruits, betel nuts, saffron, turmeric (''Bhandar'') and Bel leaves. Then, a coconut is placed on a pot filled with water and the pot is worshipped as an embodiment of Khandoba. Then, five persons lift the ''tali'', place it repeatedly on the pot thrice, saying "Elkot" or "Khande rayaca Elkot". Then the coconut in the ''tali'' is broken and mixed with sugar or jaggery and given to friends and relatives. A '' gondhal'' is performed along with the ''tali bharne''. Khandoba is considered as the giver of fertility. Maharashtrian Hindu couples are expected to visit a Khandoba temple to obtain Khandoba's blessing on consummation of marriage. Traditional Maharashtrian families also organize a ''jagaran'' as part of the marriage ceremony, inviting the god to the marriage. The Sanskrit ''Malhari Mahatmya'' suggests offerings of incense, lights, betel and animals to Khandoba. The Marathi version mentions offerings of meat and the worship by ''chedapatadi'' – "causing themselves to be cut", hook-swinging and self-mortification by ''vira''s. Marathi version calls this form of
bhakti ''Bhakti'' (; Pali: ''bhatti'') is a term common in Indian religions which means attachment, fondness for, devotion to, trust, homage, worship, piety, faith, or love.See Monier-Williams, ''Sanskrit Dictionary'', 1899. In Indian religions, it ...
(devotion) as ''ugra'' (violent, demonic) ''bhakti''. The ''Martanda vijaya'' narrates about '' Rakshashi bhakti'' (demonic worship) by animal sacrifice and self — torture. Possession by Khandoba, in form of a wind, is lower demonic worship (''pishachi worship'').
Sattvic ''Sattva'' (Sanskrit: सत्त्व, meaning ''goodness'') is one of the three '' guṇas'' or "modes of existence" (tendencies, qualities, attributes), a philosophical and psychological concept understood by the Samkhya school of Hindu philo ...
worship, the purest form of worship, is believed to be feeding Khandoba in form of a Brahmin.


Muslim veneration

Khandoba is also a figure of respect and worship to
Muslims Muslims () are people who adhere to Islam, a Monotheism, monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God ...
, and this affiliation is visible in the style of his temples. He is called ''Mallu'' or ''Ajmat Khan (Rautray)'' by Muslim devotees, and is many times portrayed as being a Muslim himself in this context. The latter title is believed to conferred upon by the Mughal invader king
Aurangzeb Alamgir I (Muhi al-Din Muhammad; 3 November 1618 – 3 March 1707), commonly known by the title Aurangzeb, also called Aurangzeb the Conqueror, was the sixth Mughal emperors, Mughal emperor, reigning from 1658 until his death in 1707, becomi ...
, who was forced to flee from Jejuri by Khandoba's power. Some of these distinguishing Muslim features include his usual appearance as that of a
pathan Pashtuns (, , ; ;), also known as Pakhtuns, or Pathans, are an Iranic ethnic group primarily residing in southern and eastern Afghanistan and northwestern Pakistan. They were historically also referred to as Afghans until 1964 after the ...
on horseback, one of his wives being a Muslim, and that his horse-keeper is a Muslim in Jejuri. The ''Martaṇḍa Vijaya'' expressly states that his devotees are mainly Muslims. The worship of Khandoba had received royal patronage by Ibrahim II, which consisted of the reinstatement of the annual jatra (fair) and the right of pilgrims to perform rituals at the Naldurg temple.Sontheimer in Hiltebeitel pp. 325–7 The ''Malhari Mahatmya'' even records Muslims (''
mleccha Mleccha () is a Sanskrit term referring to those of an incomprehensible speech, foreigners or invaders deemed distinct and separate from the Vedic tribes. In Vedic Brahmanical discourse, the term is used to refer to foreigners (anāryans) who ...
'') as the god's bhaktas (devotees), who call him as ''Malluka Pathan'' or ''Mallu Khan''.Sontheimer in Bakker p.116 In Jejuri, a Muslim family traditionally looks after the horses of the god.


Temples

There are over 600 temples dedicated to Khandoba in the
Deccan The Deccan is a plateau extending over an area of and occupies the majority of the Indian peninsula. It stretches from the Satpura and Vindhya Ranges in the north to the northern fringes of Tamil Nadu in the south. It is bound by the mount ...
. His temples stretch from
Nasik Nashik, formerly Nasik, is a city in the northern region of the Indian state of Maharashtra situated on the banks of the river Godavari River, Godavari, about northeast of the state capital Mumbai. Nashik is one of the Hindu pilgrimage sit ...
,
Maharashtra Maharashtra () is a state in the western peninsular region of India occupying a substantial portion of the Deccan Plateau. It is bordered by the Arabian Sea to the west, the Indian states of Karnataka and Goa to the south, Telangana to th ...
in the north to Davangere,
Karnataka Karnataka ( ) is a States and union territories of India, state in the southwestern region of India. It was Unification of Karnataka, formed as Mysore State on 1 November 1956, with the passage of the States Reorganisation Act, 1956, States Re ...
in the south,
Konkan The Konkan is a stretch of land by the western coast of India, bound by the river Daman Ganga at Damaon in the north, to Anjediva Island next to Karwar town in the south; with the Arabian Sea to the west and the Deccan plateau to the eas ...
, Maharashtra in the west to western
Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh (ISO 15919, ISO: , , AP) is a States and union territories of India, state on the East Coast of India, east coast of southern India. It is the List of states and union territories of India by area, seventh-largest state and th ...
in the east. The eleven principal centres of worship of Khandoba or ''jagrut
kshetra Tirtha (, ) is a Sanskrit word that means "crossing place, ford", and refers to any place, text or person that is holy. It particularly refers to pilgrimage sites and holy places in Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. The process or journey asso ...
s'', where the deity is to be called awake or "jagrut", are recognized; six of them in Maharashtra and the rest in northern Karnataka. Khandoba's temples resemble forts, the capital of his kingdom being Jejuri. The priests here are
Gurav The Gurav are an occupational community comprising several castes. They are among the traditional service providers found in villages, for whom they are in a priest role, and are found in several states of India. It derives from the Sanskrit pl ...
s, not Brahmins. His most important temples are: #
Jejuri Jejuri (Marathi pronunciation: ͡ʒed͡zuɾiː is a city and a municipal council in the Pune district of Maharashtra, India. Khandoba Mandir is an important Hindu temple to the Hindu Lord Khandoba, one of the most visited tirtha (holy pla ...
: The foremost center of worship of Khandoba. It is situated 48 km from
Pune Pune ( ; , ISO 15919, ISO: ), previously spelled in English as Poona (List of renamed Indian cities and states#Maharashtra, the official name until 1978), is a city in the state of Maharashtra in the Deccan Plateau, Deccan plateau in Western ...
, Maharashtra. There are two temples: the first is an ancient temple known as ''Kadepathar''. Kadepathar is difficult to climb. The second one is the newer and more famous ''Gad-kot'' temple, which is easy to climb. This temple has about 450 steps, 18 ''Kamani'' (arches) and 350 ''Dipmalas'' (lamp-pillars). Both temples are fort-like structures. #
Pali Pāli (, IAST: pāl̤i) is a Classical languages of India, classical Middle Indo-Aryan languages, Middle Indo-Aryan language of the Indian subcontinent. It is widely studied because it is the language of the Buddhist ''Pali Canon, Pāli Can ...
(Rajapur) or Pali-Pember, Satara district, Maharashtra. # Adi-mailar or Khanapur (Pember or Mailkarpur) near
Bidar Bidar ( ) is a city and headquarters of the Bidar district in Karnataka state of India. Bidar is a prominent place on the archaeological map of India, it is well known for architectural, historical religious and rich heritage sites. Pictures ...
, Karnataka # Naldurg,
Osmanabad district Osmanabad District (pronunciation: Help:IPA/Marathi, smaːnabaːd̪ (Transliteration: Usmanabad Jil'hā), officially known as Dharashiv District, is an administrative district in the Marathwada, Marathwada region in the States and union te ...
, Maharashtra. # Mailara Linga,
Dharwad district Dharwad or Dharawada is an administrative district of the state of Karnataka in southern India. The administrative headquarters of the district is the city of Dharwad, also known as Dharwar. Dharwad is located 425 km northwest of Bangalo ...
, Karnataka. # Mangasuli,
Belgaum district Belagavi district, formerly also known as Belgaum district, is a district in the state of Karnataka, India. The district is known as the sugar bowl of Karnataka with hectares being used for commercial production. It has overtaken Mandya distri ...
, Karnataka. # Maltesh or Mailara temple at Devaragudda,
Ranebennur Ranibennur anebennur(AMRUT city) is a major city in Haveri district and in Central Karnataka, India.It is situated northwest of Bengaluru, the capital of Karnataka. Other nearby cities include Hubballi (108 km) and Mangalore, Mangaluru ...
Taluk,
Haveri district Haveri is a district in the state of Karnataka, India. As of 2011, it had a population of 1,597,668, out of which 20.78% were urban residents. The district headquarters is Haveri. Ranebennur is the biggest city in Haveri district with populatio ...
, Karnataka. # Mannamailar or Mailar (Mylara),
Bellary Ballari (formerly Bellary) is a city in the Ballari district in state of Karnataka, India. Ballari houses many steel plants such as JSW Vijayanagar, one of the largest in Asia. Ballari district is also known as the ‘Steel city of South Ind ...
, Karnataka. # Nimgaon Dawadi, Pune district, Maharashtra. # Shegud,
Ahmednagar district Ahmednagar district (Marathi pronunciation: ɦ(ə)məd̪nəɡəɾ, officially Ahilyanagar district, is the largest district of Maharashtra state in western India. The historical city of Ahmednagar is the headquarters of the district. Ahmednagar ...
, Maharashtra. # Komuravelli,
Siddipet Siddipet, also natively spelt as Siddipeta, is a city in the Indian state of Telangana. It is a municipality and serves as the headquarters of the Siddipet district. It is located about north of the state capital, Hyderabad, and from Warangal ...
district, Telangana. # Satare, Aurangabad district, Maharashtra. # Malegaon,
Nanded district Nanded district (Marathi pronunciation: Help:IPA/Marathi, aːn̪d̪eɖ is a districts of Maharashtra, district of Maharashtra state in central India. The city of Nanded is the district headquarters. History Nanded is mentioned in historica ...
, Maharashtra. # Mailapur Mailarlingeshwara Temple, Mailapura, Yadgir, Yadgiri District, Karnataka


Festivals

A six-day festival, from the first to sixth lunar day of the bright fortnight of the Hindu month of
Margashirsha Agrahayana or Margashirsha, ( or ), is the ninth month of the Hindu calendar. In India's national civil calendar, ''Agrahayana'' is also the eight month of the year, beginning on 16 November and ending on 15 December. Margashirsha means relat ...
, in honour of Khandoba is celebrated at Jejuri, to commemorate the fight with demons Mani-Malla. On the sixth day (Champa-Shashthi), Khandoba is believed to have slew the demons. A '' jatra'' (temple festival and fair) is held in Pember on Champa-shasthi; the festival continues until the new moon. Deshastha Brahmans and Marathas also observe the annual Champa-Shashthi festival. The images of Khandoba and Malla are cleaned and worshipped. For six days, a fast is observed. On the seventh day, the devotees break their fast by a feast known as ''Champasashtliiche parne''. An invitation to this feast is regarded as an invitation from Khandoba himself and is harder to refuse. Another festival Somvati Amavasya, which is a new-moon day that falls on a Monday, is celebrated in Jejuri. A '' palakhi'' (palanquin) procession of the images of Khandoba and Mhalsa is carried from the Gad-kot temple to the Karha river, where the images are ritually bathed. In Pali-Pember, the ritual of the marriage of Khandoba with Mhalsa is annually performed. Turmeric is offered to the deities. Two festivals are celebrated in honour of Mailara, as Khandoba is known in Karnataka. These are the Dasara festival at Devaragudda, and an eleven-day festival in Magha month (February–March) in Mailar, Bellary district. Both festivals have enactments of the battle between Mailar and the demons Mani-Malla.
Chaitra Chaitra () is a month of the Hindu calendar. In the standard Hindu calendar and India's national civil calendar, Chaitra is the first month of the year. It is the last month in the Bengali calendar, where it is called Choitro. Chaitra or Cha ...
Purnima (full-moon day) is also considered auspicious. In general, Sundays, associated with the Sun, are considered auspicious for Khandoba worship.


Development of the sect

The sect of Khandoba, a
folk religion Folk religion, traditional religion, or vernacular religion comprises, according to religious studies and folkloristics, various forms and expressions of religion that are distinct from the official doctrines and practices of organized religion. ...
, reflects the effect of Vedic
Rudra Rudra (/ ɾud̪ɾə/; ) is a Rigvedic deity associated with Shiva, the wind or storms, Vayu, medicine, and the hunt. One translation of the name is 'the roarer'. In the ''Rigveda'', Rudra is praised as the "mightiest of the mighty". Rudra ...
, the Puranic Shiva worshipped as Linga in Brahmanical Hinduism and
Nath Natha, also called Nath (), are a Shaivism, Shaiva sub-tradition within Hinduism in India and Nepal. A medieval movement, it combined ideas from Buddhism, Shaivism, Tantra and Yoga traditions of the Indian subcontinent.
and
Lingayat The Lingayats are a monotheistic religious denomination of Hinduism. Lingayats are also known as , , , . Lingayats are known for their unique practice of Ishtalinga worship, where adherents carry a personal linga symbolizing a constant, intim ...
sects. Khandoba may be a product of the Vedic Rudra, who like Khandoba was associated with robbers, horses and dogs. The 14th-century commentator Sayana traces the name ''Malhari'' to the ''
Taittiriya Samhita The ''Taittirīya Shakha'' (Sanskrit, loosely meaning 'Branch or School of the sage Tittiri'), is a ''shakha'' (i.e. 'branch', 'school', or rescension) of the Krishna (black) Yajurveda. The Taittiriyas are themselves divided into numerous sub-s ...
'', Malhari is explained as enemy (ari) of Malha (
Prajapati Prajapati (, ) is a Vedas, Vedic deity of Hinduism. He is later identified with Brahma, the creator god. Prajapati is a form of the creator-god Brahma, but the name is also the name of many different gods, in many Hindu scriptures, ranging f ...
) – an epithet of Rudra, who is considered a rival of the deity Prajapati. According to Stanley, Khandoba originated as a mountain-top god, solar deity and a regional guardian and then assimilated into himself gods of various regions and communities. According to Stanley, Khandoba inherits traits from both the sun-god Surya as well as Shiva, who is identified with the moon. Stanley describes Khandoba as "a moon god, who has become a sun god", emphasizing on how the moon imagery of Shiva transforms into the solar iconography of Khandoba in the ''Malhari Mahatmya''. As per R. C. Dhere, two stone inscriptions in 1063 C.E. and 1148 C.E mentioning the folk deities Mailara and his consort Malavva which suggests that Mailara gained popularity in Karnataka in this period. Soon, royals of this region started erecting temples to this folk deity, upsetting the elite class of established religion who vilified Mailara. Initially exalted as an incarnation of Shiva, Mailara was denounced by
Basava Basava (1131–1196), also called and , was an Indian philosopher, poet, Lingayat social reformer in the Shiva-focused bhakti movement, and a Hindu Shaivite social reformer during the reign of the Kalyani Chalukya and the Kalachuri dynas ...
, the founder of the Shiva-worshipping Lingayat sect – who would later promote the deity.
Chakradhara Chakradhara (also known as Sarvadnya Shri Chakradhar Swami or Kunwar Haripaladeva was an Indian Hindu saint and philosopher, who was the founder of Mahanubhava sect of Krishnaism. Shri Chakradhara advocated worship of the god Krishna and preache ...
(c.1270, founder of
Mahanubhava Mahanubhava (also known as Jai Krishni Pantha) refers to a Krishnaite Hindu denomination in India that was founded by Sarvadnya Shri Chakradhar Swami (or Shri Chakradhara Swami), an ascetic and philosopher who is considered a reincarnation ...
sect),
Vidyaranya Vidyaranya (IAST: Vidyāraṇya), usually identified with Mādhavācārya, was the ''jagadguru'' of the Sringeri Sharada Peetham from ca. 1374–1380 until 1386 – according to tradition, after ordination at an old age, he took the name of ...
(1296–1391) and
Sheikh Muhammad Sheikh Muhammad (1560–1650), also known as Shekh Mahammad (Mohammad), Sayyad Shaikh Mahammad Qadiri, Shaikh Muhammad Shrigondekar (lit. Sheikh Muhammad of Shrigonde), and Sheikh (Shekh) Mahammad-baba, was a Muslim saint-poet who is also vene ...
(1560–1650) criticized the god. The
Varkari Warkari ( ; Marathi: ; Pronunciation: ; Meaning: 'The one who performs the ''Wari) is a sampradaya (religious movement) within the bhakti spiritual tradition of Hinduism, geographically associated with the Indian state of Maharashtra. Wark ...
poet-saint
Eknath Eknath (IAST: Eka-nātha, Marathi pronunciation: knath (1533–1599), was an Indian Hindu Vaishnava saint, philosopher and poet. He was a devotee of the Hindu deity Vitthal and is a major figure of the Warkari movement. Eknath is often vie ...
also wrote "disparagingly" about Khandoba's cult worship, but after him, the "open" criticism of Khandoba stopped, but the "barbaric" practices of his cult were still targeted. Sontheimer suggests that Khandoba was primarily a god of herdsmen, and that the cult of Khandoba is at least older than 12th century, which can be determined by references in Jain and Lingayat texts and inscriptions. A 12th-century Jain author Brahmashiva claims that a Jain, who died in battle after a display of his valour, was later named as Mailara. By the 13th century, wide worship of Malhari or Mailara is observed by kings, Brahmins, simple folk and warriors. With the rise of the
Muslim empire This article includes a list of successive Islamic states and Muslim dynasties beginning with the time of the Islamic prophet Muhammad (570–632 CE) and the early Muslim conquests that spread Islam outside of the Arabian Peninsula, and continui ...
, classical Hindu temples fell into ruin, giving rise to the folk religion such as of Khandoba. Chakradhara remarked in his biography ''Lilacharitra'' - "by the end of the
Kali Yuga ''Kali Yuga'' (Devanagari: कलियुग), in Hinduism, is the fourth, shortest, and worst of the four '' yugas'' (world ages) in a '' Yuga cycle'', preceded by '' Dvapara Yuga'' and followed by the next cycle's '' Krita (Satya) Yuga''. I ...
, temples of Vishnu and Shiva will be destroyed, but those of Mairala will stay". A 1369 AD inscription at Inavolu near
Warangal Warangal () is a city in the Indian state of Telangana and the district headquarters of Warangal district. It is the second largest city in Telangana with a population of 811,844 per 2011 Census of India, and spreading over an . Warangal serv ...
tells an account of Mallari different from the ''Malhari Mahatmya'' — Shiva helped the epic hero
Arjuna Arjuna (, , Help:IPA/Sanskrit, ɾd͡ʒun̪ə is one of the central characters of the ancient Hindu epic ''Mahabharata''. He is the third of the five Pandava brothers, and is widely regarded as the most important and renowned among them. ...
kill the demon Malla, thus acquiring the title of Mallari. Mailara was the family deity of the
Kakatiya The Kakatiya dynasty (IAST: Kākatīya) was a Telugu dynasty that ruled most of eastern Deccan region in present-day India between 12th and 14th centuries. Their territory comprised much of the present day Telangana and Andhra Pradesh, and p ...
dynasty (1083–1323 AD); a text from their rule records the self-torture rituals of Mailara-devotees and describes the deity. Throughout his development, Mailara is looked upon as a lower manifestation of
Ishvara ''Ishvara'' () is a concept in Hinduism, with a wide range of meanings that depend on the era and the school of Hinduism. Monier Monier Williams, Sanskrit-English dictionarySearch for Izvara, University of Cologne, Germany In ancient texts of ...
(God) by Lingayat and Maharashtrian
bhakti ''Bhakti'' (; Pali: ''bhatti'') is a term common in Indian religions which means attachment, fondness for, devotion to, trust, homage, worship, piety, faith, or love.See Monier-Williams, ''Sanskrit Dictionary'', 1899. In Indian religions, it ...
saints.Sontheimer in Bakker pp. 106–7 By the 18th century, Khandoba had become the clan deity of the
Maratha Empire The Maratha Empire, also referred to as the Maratha Confederacy, was an early modern India, early modern polity in the Indian subcontinent. It comprised the realms of the Peshwa and four major independent List of Maratha dynasties and states, Ma ...
. In 1752, the Maratha dowager queen
Tarabai Maharani Tarabai Bhonsle ( Marathi: ̪aːɾabaːi; ; 1675 – 9 December 1761) was the regent of the Maratha Empire from 1700 until 1708. She was the queen of Rajaram I, and daughter-in-law of the kingdom's founder Shivaji I. She is acclaim ...
chose Khandoba's Jejuri temple to seal her pact with the
Peshwa The Peshwa was the second highest office in the Maratha Empire, next in rank and prestige only to that of the Chhatrapati. Initially serving as the appointed prime minister in the Maratha Kingdom, the office became hereditary when Shahu gave t ...
ruler,
Balaji Bajirao Balaji Baji Rao (8 December 1720 – 23 June 1761), often referred to as Nana Saheb I, was the 8th Peshwa of the Maratha Empire. He was appointed as Peshwa in 1740 upon the death of his father, Peshwa Bajirao I. During his tenure, the Chhatra ...
, in the deity's presence. The ''Malhari Mahatmya'' states that Khandoba first appeared on Champa-Shashthi, which was a Sunday, at Premapur, which identified as Pember (Adimailar, Mailarapur) near
Bidar Bidar ( ) is a city and headquarters of the Bidar district in Karnataka state of India. Bidar is a prominent place on the archaeological map of India, it is well known for architectural, historical religious and rich heritage sites. Pictures ...
. Marathi traditions tell that Khandoba came originally from Premapuri, now Pember in
Karnataka Karnataka ( ) is a States and union territories of India, state in the southwestern region of India. It was Unification of Karnataka, formed as Mysore State on 1 November 1956, with the passage of the States Reorganisation Act, 1956, States Re ...
, then went to Naldurg, Pali and finally to Jejuri. Sontheimer suggests that the cult of Mailara may have originated in Pember and then spread to Maharashtra, merging with the cult of Khandaka — the patron
yaksha The Yakshas (, , ) in Mythology are a broad class of nature spirits, usually benevolent, but sometimes mischievous or capricious, connected with water, fertility, trees, the forest, treasure and wilderness. They appear in Hindu, Jain and Bud ...
(demi-god) of
Paithan Paithan (), historically Pratiṣṭhāna ɾə'tɪʂʈʰanə is a town with municipal council in Chhatrapati Sambhajinagar district, Maharashtra, Maharashtra, India. Paithan is located south of present-day Aurangabad on the banks of the ...
giving it its distinct Maharashtrain characteristics. Maharashtrains call the god – ''Kanadya Khanderaya'', the god from Karnataka. The cult possibly was spread by Lingayat, Jain and other merchants, associated with Mailara-Khandoba, to other parts of the Deccan. Besides Mailara, Khandoba is identified with other deities of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, and is called as Mallanna, Mairala, and Mallu Khan.Sontheimer in Bakker pp.108–9 Other traditions like
Shakta Shaktism () is a major Hindu denomination in which the deity or metaphysical reality is considered metaphorically to be a woman. Shaktism involves a galaxy of goddesses, all regarded as different aspects, manifestations, or personificatio ...
sects of folk goddesses were assimilated into the Khandoba sect, identifying the goddesses with Khandoba's wives Mhalsa or Banai.Sontheimer in Bakker p.116 Marathi literature has a mixed reaction to the sect of Khandoba. Naranjanamadhva (1790) in
stotra ''Stotra'' (Sanskrit: स्तोत्र) is a Sanskrit word that means "ode, eulogy or a hymn of praise."Monier Williams, Monier Williams' Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Oxford University Press, Article on 'Stotra'' It is a literary genre of In ...
(hymn) dedicated to Khandoba calls him "an illustrious king with rich clothes and a horse with a saddle studded with jewels", who was once "an ascetic beggar who ride an old bull and carried an ant-bitten club ( khatvanga)" – a humorous take on the Puranic Shiva. In another instance (1855), he is called a ghost by a
Christian A Christian () is a person who follows or adheres to Christianity, a Monotheism, monotheistic Abrahamic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus in Christianity, Jesus Christ. Christians form the largest religious community in the wo ...
missionary and a Koknastha Brahmin in a debate against a
Deshastha Brahmin Deshastha Brahmin is a Hinduism, Hindu Brahmin caste, subcaste mainly from the Indian state of Maharashtra and North Karnataka. Other than these states, according to authors K. S. Singh, Gregory Naik and Pran Nath Chopra, Deshastha Brahmins a ...
. Another Brahmin remarks with scorn about the impurity of the Khandoba temple, visited by
Shudra Shudra or ''Shoodra'' (Sanskrit: ') is one of the four varnas of the Hindu class and social system in ancient India. Some sources translate it into English as a caste, or as a social class. Theoretically, Shudras constituted a class like work ...
s and whose priests are non-Brahmin Guravs. The Marathi term "khel-khandoba", which is taken to mean "devastation" in general usage, refers to the possession of devotee by the god in his sect.


References


Further reading

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External links


Website with full information about Lord Khandoba

Khandoba temples of Maharashtra, Karnatak & Andhra Pradesh
{{Authority control Forms of Shiva Regional Hindu gods Hindu folk deities