Mahmud Ghazan

Mahmud Ghazan (5 November 1271 – 11 May 1304) (, Ghazan Khan, sometimes westernized as Casanus was the seventh ruler of the Mongol Empire's Ilkhanate division in modern-day Iran from 1295 to 1304. He was the son of Arghun, grandson of Abaqa Khan and great-grandson of Hulegu Khan, continuing a long line of rulers who were direct descendants of Genghis Khan. Considered the most prominent of the Ilkhans, he is perhaps best known for converting to Islam and meeting Imam Ibn Taymiyya in 1295 when he took the throne, marking a turning point for the dominant religion of the Mongols in West Asia: Iran, Iraq, Anatolia, and the South Caucasus.

One of his many principal wives was Kököchin, a Mongol princess (originally betrothed to Ghazan's father Arghun before his death) sent by his great-uncle Kublai Khan.

Military conflicts during Ghazan's reign included war with the Mamluk Sultanate for control of Syria and battles with the Turko-Mongol Chagatai Khanate. Ghazan also pursued diplomatic contacts with Europe, continuing his predecessors' unsuccessful attempts at forming a Franco-Mongol alliance. A man of high culture, Ghazan spoke multiple languages, had many hobbies, and reformed many elements of the Ilkhanate, especially in the matter of standardizing currency and fiscal policy.

Childhood

Ghazan's parents were Arghun and his concubine Kultak Egechi of the Dörböd. At the time of their marriage, Arghun was 12. Kultak's elder sister Ashlun was the wife of Tübshin, son of Hulagu and the previous viceroy in Greater Khorasan. According to Rashid al-Din Hamadani, where Arghun was viceroy.

Ghazan was born on 5 November 1271 in Abaskun (now near Bandar Torkaman), although he was raised in the nomadic palace of the orda of his grandfather Abaqa's favorite wife, Buluqhan Khatun, who herself was childless. Ghazan and Arghun didn't see each other until Abaqa's attack on Qara'unas in 1279, when they briefly met.

Ghazan was raised an Eastern Christian, as was his brother Öljaitü. The Mongols were traditionally tolerant of multiple religions, and during Ghazan's youth, he was educated by a Chinese Buddhist monk, who taught him Old Mandarin and Buddhism, as well as the Mongolian and Uighur scripts.

Under Tekuder

He lived together with Gaykhatu in Buluqhan Khatun's encampment in Baghdad after Abaqa's death. He reunited again with his father when Buluqhan Khatun was wed to Arghun and became Ghazan's step-mother.

Rule in Khorasan

Under Arghun

After the overthrow of Tekuder in 1284, Ghazan's father Arghun was enthroned as Ilkhan, the 11-year-old Ghazan became viceroy, and he moved to the capital of Khorasan, never to see Arghun again. Emir Tegene was appointed as his deputy, who he didn't like very much. In 1289, conflict with other Mongols ensued when a revolt was led against Arghun by Nawruz, a young emir of the Oirat clan, whose father had been civil governor of Persia before the arrival of Hulegu. Ghazan's deputy Tegene was among the victims of Nawruz's raid on 20 April 1289 in which he was captured and imprisoned. Nawruz's protege, Prince Hulachu was arrested by Ghazan's commander Mulay ten days later. When Nawruz was defeated by Arghun's reinforcements in 1290, he fled the Ilkhanate and joined the alliance of Kaidu, another descendant of Genghis Khan who was the ruler of both the House of Ögedei and the neighboring Chagatai Khanate. Ghazan spent the next ten years defending the frontier of the Ilkhanate against incursions by the Chagatai Khanate of Central Asia.

Under Gaykhatu

When his father, Arghun, died in 1291, Ghazan was prevented from pursuing his claim of leadership in the capital because he was engaged both with Nawruz's raids, and dealing with rebellion and famine in Khorasan and Nishapur. Taghachar, an army commander who had served the previous three generations of Ilkhans, was probably behind the death of Arghun, and supported Ghazan's uncle Gaykhatu as the new Ilkhan. Despite being boyhood rivals, Gaykhatu sent aid to Ghazan's fight against Nawruz in Khorasan under the leadership of Prince Anbarchi (son of Möngke Temür) and emirs Tuladai, Quncuqbal and El Temür; himself going to Anatolia to quell Turcoman uprisings. However, famine reached his court too in spring and Anbarchi, unable to feed his soldiers, had to leave soon for Azerbaijan again. He again tried to visit Gaykhatu, but after his refusal, he had to go back. Ghazan received Kököchin, a Mongol princess from the Yuan dynasty in China, on his way back from Tabriz to Khorasan. She had been brought from the east in a caravan which included Marco Polo among hundreds of other travellers. She had originally been betrothed to Ghazan's father, IlKhan Arghun, but since he had died during her months-long journey, she instead married his son Ghazan.

In 1294, Ghazan forced Nawruz to surrender at Nishapur and Nawruz then became one of Ghazan's lieutenants. Ghazan was loyal to his uncle, though he refused to follow Gaykhatu's lead in introducing paper currency to his province, explaining that the weather of Khorasan was too humid to handle paper.

Against Baydu

In 1295, Taghachar and his conspirators, who probably had been behind the death of Arghun, had his successor Gaykhatu killed as well. They then placed the pliable Baydu, a cousin of Ghazan, on the throne. Baydu was primarily a figurehead, allowing the conspirators to divide the Ilkhanate among themselves. Hearing of Gaykhatu's murder, Ghazan marched on Baydu. Baydu explained that Ghazan was away during the events leading to Gaykhatu's fall, therefore nobles had no choice but to raise him to throne. Nevertheless, Amir Nowruz encouraged Ghazan to take steps against Baydu, because he was nothing but a figurehead under grips of nobles. Baydu's forces commanded by Ildar (his cousin and Prince Ajay's son), Eljidei and Chichak met him near Qazvin. Ghazan's army were commanded by Prince Sogai (son of Yoshmut), Buralghi, Nowruz, Qutluqshah and Nurin Aqa. The first battle was won by Ghazan but he had to fall back after realising that Ildar's contingent was just a fraction of the whole army he faced, leaving Nowruz behind. Nevertheless, he captured Arslan, a descendant of Jochi Qasar.

After a short truce, Baydu offered Ghazan co-rulership of the Ilkhanate and offered Nowruz the post of ''sahib-i divan'' to which as a counter-condition Ghazan demanded the revenues of his father's hereditary lands in Fars, Persian Iraq and Kerman. Nowruz refused these conditions, which led to his arrest. According to an anecdote, he promised to bring Ghazan back tied up on condition of his release. Once he reached Ghazan, he sent back a cauldron to Baydu; a word play on the Turkish word kazan. Nowruz promised him the throne and his help on condition of Ghazan's conversion to Islam. Ghazan converted to Sunni Islam, on June 16, 1295, at the hands of Ibrahim ibn Muhammad ibn al-Mu'ayyid ibn Hamaweyh al-Khurasani al-Juwayni as a condition for Nawruz's military support. Nowruz entered Qazvin with 4,000 soldiers and claimed an additional number of 120,000 soldiers commanded by Ebügen (in other sources, 30,000) – descendant of Jochi Qasar – on his way towards Azerbaijan which caused panic among masses which was followed by defections of Taghachar's subordinates (thanks to Taghachar's vizier Sadr ul-Din Zanjani) and other powerful emirs like Qurumishi and Chupan on 28 August 1295.

Seeing imminent defeat, Baydu asked for Taghachar's support, ignorant of his defection. After realising Taghachar's withdrawal, he fled to Emir Tukal in Georgia on 26 September 1295. Ghazan's commanders found him near Nakhchivan and arrested him, taking back to Tabriz, having him executed on October 4, 1295.

Early reign

Ghazan declared his victory after the execution of Baydu on the outskirts of Tabriz on 4 October 1295, he entered the city. After this declaration, several appointments, orders and executions came as usual – Gaykhatu's son Alafrang's son-in-law Eljidai Qushchi was executed, Nawrūz was rewarded with of state and was given extreme power, akin to Buqa's back in the day of Arghun. Nawrūz, on his part, issued a formal edict in opposition to other religions in the Ilkhanate. Nawruz loyalists persecuted Buddhists and Christians to such an extent that Buddhism in Iran never recovered, the Church of the East cathedral in the Mongol capital of Maragheh was looted, and churches in Tabriz and Hamadan were destroyed.

Baydu loyalists too were purged – emirs Jirghadai and Qonchuqbal were executed on 10 and 15 October respectively. Qonchuqbal was specifically hated for his murder of Aq Buqa Jalair, his executioner was Nawrūz's brother Hajji, who was also Aq Buqa's son-in-law. Taghachar's protege, Sadr al-Din Zanjani was granted the office of vizier following deposition of Baydu's vizier, Jamal al-Din. He reappointed Taghachar to the Anatolian viceroyalty on 10 November 1295. Another series of executions came after 1296: Prince Ajai's son Ildar fled to Anatolia on 6 February but was captured and executed; Yesütai, an Oirat commander who supported Hulegu's son-in-law Taraghai, in his migration to Mamluk Sultanate Syria, was executed on 24 May and Buralghi Qiyatai, a commander who was rebellious against Arghun was executed on 12 February.

Meanwhile, Nogai Khan, kingmaker in the Golden Horde, was murdered and his wife Chubei fled to Ghazan with his son Torai (or Büri) who was Abaqa's son-in-law in 1296.

Purge of nobles

Ghazan eased the troubles with the Golden Horde, but the House of Ögedei and Chagatais of Central Asia continued to pose a serious threat to both the Ilkhanate and his overlord and ally to the Great Khan in China. When Ghazan was crowned, the Chagatai khan Duwa invaded Khorasan on 9 December 1295. Ghazan sent two of his relatives, Prince Sogai (son of Yoshmut) and Esen Temür (son of Qonqurtai), against the army of Chagatai Khanate, but they deserted, believing this was Nawrūz's plot to further deprive the nobility of their possessions. Nawrū informed Ghazan of this plot, subsequently executing them in 1296. Another Borjigid prince, Arslan who was captured by Ghazan previously and pardoned, revolted in Bilasuvar. After a series of battles near Baylaqan he too was captured and executed, along with the rebellious emirs on 29 March.

Following the purge of princes, Taghachar was thought to have been implicated in the rebellion of Prince Sogai and was declared a rebel. Taghachar strengthened himself in Tokat and resisted against Ghazan's commanders Harmanji, Baltu and Arap (son of Samagar). He was soon arrested by Baltu near Delice's grandson Baighut on 7 September 1296, Hazaraspid ruler Afrasiab I in October 1296, Baydu's vizier Jamal ud-Din Dastgerdani on 27 October 1296.

Revolt of Baltu

Taghachar's death triggered the revolt of Baltu of the Jalayir, in Anatolia, where he was stationed since Abaqa's reign. He was supported by Ildar (son of Qonqurtai), who was arrested and executed in September 1296. Two months later, Qutluqshah invaded Anatolia with 30,000 men and crushed Baltu's revolt, arresting him in June. He was brought to Tabriz and jailed there until 14 September 1297, when he was executed along with his son. Seljuk Sultan of Rum Mesud II on the other hand was arrested and jailed in Hamadan.

Fall of Nawrūz

Nawrūz soon embroiled himself in an argument with Nurin Aqa, who was more popular with the military and then left Khorasan. After returning to the west, he survived an assassination attempt by a soldier named Tuqtay, who claimed that Nawrūz murdered his father, Arghun Aqa. Soon he was accused of treason by Sadr al-Din Khaladi, ''sahib-divan'' of Ghazan by a secret alliance with the Mamlukes. Indeed, according to Mamluk sources, Nawrūz corresponded with Sultan Lajin. Using the opportunity, Ghazan started a purge against Nawrūz and his followers in May 1297. His brother Hajji Narin and his follower Satalmish were executed, along with Nawrūz's children in Hamadan, his other brother Lagzi Güregen was also put to death in Iraq on 2 April 1297. His 12-year-old son Toghai was spared due to efforts of Bulughan Khatun Khurasani, Ghazan's wife Arghun Aqa's granddaughter and given to the household of Amir Husayn. Others who were spared, were his brother Yol Qutluq and his nephew Kuchluk. Later that year Ghazan marched against Nawrūz himself, who at the time was the commander of the army of Khorasan. Ghazan's forces were victorious at a battle near Nishapur. Nawrūz took refuge at the court of the king of Herat in northern Afghanistan, but the Malik betrayed him and delivered Nawrūz to Kutlushah, who had Nawrūz executed immediately on August 13.Roux, p. 432

Relationship with other Mongol khanates

Ghazan maintained strong ties with the Great Khan of the Yuan and the Golden Horde. In 1296 Temür Khan, the successor of Kublai Khan, dispatched a military commander, Baiju, to Mongol Persia. Five years later Ghazan sent his Mongolian and Persian retainers to collect income from Hulegu's holdings in China. While there, they presented tribute to Temür and were involved in cultural exchanges across Mongol Eurasia. Ghazan also called upon other Mongol Khans to unite their will under Temür Khan, in which he was supported by Kaidu's enemy, Bayan Khan of the White Horde. Ghazan's court had Chinese physicians present.

Later reign

In order to stabilize the country Ghazan attempted to control the situation and continued the executions – Taiju (son of Möngke Temür) on 15 April 1298 on charges of sedition, vizier Sadr ul-Din Zanjani on 4 May and his brother Qutb ul-Din and with cousin Qawam ul-Mulk on 3 June on charges of embezzlement, Abu Bakr Dadqabadi on 10 October. Ghazan appointed a Jewish convert to Islam – Rashid-al-Din Hamadani

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