is a

subgenre Genre () is any style or form of communication in any mode (written, spoken, digital, artistic, etc.) with socially agreed-upon conventions developed over time. In popular usage, it normally describes a category of literature, music, or other for ...

of primarily Japanese

fantasy Fantasy is a genre of speculative fiction that involves supernatural or Magic (supernatural), magical elements, often including Fictional universe, imaginary places and Legendary creature, creatures. The genre's roots lie in oral traditions, ...

media (including

anime is a Traditional animation, hand-drawn and computer animation, computer-generated animation originating from Japan. Outside Japan and in English, ''anime'' refers specifically to animation produced in Japan. However, , in Japan and in Ja ...

manga are comics or graphic novels originating from Japan. Most manga conform to a style developed in Japan in the late 19th century, and the form has a long history in earlier Japanese art. The term is used in Japan to refer to both comics ...

light novel A is a type of Genre fiction, popular literature novel from Japan usually classified as young adult fiction, generally targeting Adolescence, teens to Young adult, twenties or older. The definition is very vague, and wide-ranging. The abbr ...

s, and

live-action Live action is a form of cinematography or videography that uses photography instead of animation. Some works combine live action with animation to create a live-action animated feature film. Live action is used to define film, video games or ...

media) centered on young girls who possess magical abilities, which they typically use through an ideal

alter ego An alter ego (Latin for "other I") means an alternate Self (psychology), self, which is believed to be distinct from a person's normal or true original Personality psychology, personality. Finding one's alter ego will require finding one's other ...

into which they can transform. The genre emerged in 1962 with the manga ''

Himitsu no Akko-chan is an early magical girl manga series written and illustrated by Fujio Akatsuka. The story centers around an elementary school girl who is gifted a magic mirror that allows her to transform into anything she chooses, and the misadventure ...

'', followed by ''

Sally the Witch , originally titled , is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Mitsuteru Yokoyama. It was serialized in Shueisha's monthly ''Ribon'' magazine from July 1966 to October 1967. Its 1966 anime adaptation was one of the most popular ...

'' in 1966. A wave of similar anime produced in the 1970s led to being used as a common term for the genre. In the 1980s, the term was largely replaced by "magical girl", reflecting the new popularity of shows produced by other studios, including ''

Magical Princess Minky Momo is a Japanese magical girl anime franchise by Ashi Productions. The original series ran between 1982 and 1983 on TV Tokyo and inspired three OVAs between 1985 and 1987. A second television series, titled , ran on NTV between 1991 and ...

'' and ''

Creamy Mami, the Magic Angel is a magical girl anime television series produced by Studio Pierrot which aired from 1983 to 1984 on Nippon Television. It went on to have four OVA adaptions and featured in other Studio Pierrot special presentations. A three-volume ma ...

''. In the 1990s, ''

Sailor Moon is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Naoko Takeuchi. It was originally serialized in Kodansha's Shōjo manga, ''shōjo'' manga magazine ''Nakayoshi'' from 1991 to 1997; the 60 individual chapters (later reorganized into ...

'' redefined the genre by combining "transforming hero" elements from live-action hero shows. The growth of late-night anime in the early 2000s led to a demographic shift for the genre, where series with more mature themes such as ''

Magical Girl Lyrical Nanoha is a Japanese anime television series directed by Akiyuki Shinbo, with screenplay written by Masaki Tsuzuki and produced by Seven Arcs. It forms part of the ''Magical Girl Lyrical Nanoha'' series. The Japanese Association of Independe ...

'' (2004) were created and marketed towards an older male audience.

Genre history

1953–1971: Early magical girl works

Despite no presence of magic, the manga series ''

Princess Knight ''Princess Knight'', also known as ''Ribon no Kishi'', is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Osamu Tezuka. This manga follows the adventures of Sapphire, a girl who was born accidentally with a blue heart of a boy and a pin ...

'' (1953) is seen as a prototype for the magical girl genre, as it set forth the appeal of girls who transform to do things they normally cannot perform. ''

'' (1962), serialized in the ''shōjo'' manga magazine ''

Ribon is a monthly Japanese manga magazine published by Shueisha on the third of each month. First issued in August 1955, its rivals are '' Nakayoshi'' and '' Ciao''. It is one of the best-selling manga magazines, having sold over 590million c ...

'', is credited as the earliest magical girl manga series. ''

'' followed in 1966, with a concept inspired by the American sitcom ''

Bewitched ''Bewitched'' is an American fantasy sitcom television series that originally aired for eight seasons on ABC from September 17, 1964, to March 25, 1972. It is about a witch who marries an ordinary mortal man and vows to lead the life of a typi ...

''. Its 1966 anime television adaptation produced by

Toei Animation is a Japanese animation studio primarily controlled by its namesake Toei Company. It has produced numerous series, including '' Sally the Witch'', '' GeGeGe no Kitarō'', '' Mazinger Z'', '' Galaxy Express 999'', '' Cutie Honey'', '' Dr. Slu ...

, is regarded as the first magical girl anime. This anime adaptation introduced the idea of using a

compact Compact as used in politics may refer broadly to a pact or treaty; in more specific cases it may refer to: * Interstate compact, a type of agreement used by U.S. states * Blood compact, an ancient ritual of the Philippines * Compact government, a t ...

to transform, a characteristic that is still present in modern series in the genre.

1972–1979: series

Toei Animation produced most of the magical girl series of the 1970s, collectively known as the '. This popularized the term for the genre, especially with ''

Mahōtsukai Chappy (shortly known as ''Chappy'') is a Japanese anime television series that debuted in TV Asahi (formerly known as NET, or Nihon Educational Television) in 1972. It is the fifth magical girl anime in history (the sixth if one counts Osamu Tezuka's ...

'' (1972) and ''

Majokko Megu-chan is a Japanese magical girl anime television series. The manga was created by Tomô Inoue and Makiho Narita, while the 72-episode anime series was produced by Toei Animation between 1974 and 1975. This series is considered an important forerunn ...

'' (1974). ''Megu-chan'' has been noted in particular for its portrayal of multiple magical girls and the friendship between girls. Coinciding with the influence of the women's liberation movement in Japan, magical girls began displaying a "certain coquettishness" in the 1970s.

1980–1989: Transition from to magical girl

In 1980, Toei released ''

Lalabel, the Magical Girl is a magical girl anime television series by Toei Animation. It aired from 15 February 1980 to 27 February 1981 on TV Asahi. A 15-minute film called was released in Japan on July 12, 1980. Plot Lalabel, a magical girl from a magical world, ...

'', the first instance of the term " (magical girl)" being used. In the following years, other studios besides Toei began producing magical girl anime series, such as ''

'' (1982) and ''

'' (1983), the latter of which was the first installment of

Studio Pierrot , previously known as until 2002, is a Japanese animation studio established in May 1979 by Yuji Nunokawa, previously an animator and director for Tatsunoko Production. Its headquarters are located in Mitaka, Tokyo. Pierrot is renowned for ...

's . A characteristic of ''Minky Momo'' and ''Creamy Mami'' showed girls transforming into grown-up images of themselves, which has been linked to the increasing prominence of women at this time including politician

Takako Doi was a prominent Japanese politician from 1980 until her retirement in 2005. She was the first female Lower House Speaker in Japan, the highest position a female politician has ever held in the country's modern history, as well as the country' ...

, the

all-female band An all-female band is a musical ensemble, musical group in popular music that is exclusively composed of female musicians. This is distinct from a girl group, in which the female members are solely vocalists, though this terminology is not universa ...

Princess Princess, and pop

idol Idol or Idols may refer to: Religion and philosophy * Cult image, a human-made object that is venerated or worshipped for the deity, spirit or daemon that it embodies or represents * Murti, a devotional image of a deity or saint used during puja ...

Seiko Matsuda , known professionally as , is a Japanese singer-songwriter, known for being one of the most popular Japanese idols of the 1980s. Since then, she has continued to release new singles and albums, go on annual summer concert tours, perform at wi ...

, as well as the passage of the

Equal Employment Opportunity Act The Equal Employment Opportunity Act of 1972 is a United States federal law which amends Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 (the "1964 Act") to strengthen protections against employment discrimination. It prohibits discrimination in the ...

in 1985.

Yuji Nunokawa Yuji Nunokawa (; 11 February 1947 – 25 December 2022) was a Japanese anime producer, animator and director. Life and career Born in Sakata, Yamagata to a family of tailors, Nunokawa studied at the Nippon Design Welfare College, graduating in ...

, the producer of both ''Minky Momo'' and ''Creamy Mami'', noted that male fans of the magical girl genre increased after ''Creamy Mami'' due to the shows' use of transformations and they enjoyed watching girls using magic to solve their problems in ways men traditionally could not. Due to the popularity of ''Minky Momo'' and Studio Pierrot's shows, the term "" had largely fallen out of use in favor of "magical girl".

1990–1999: Transforming heroine and diversification

'' (1991), whose anime adaptation was broadcast from 1992 to 1997, revolutionized the magical girl genre by combining "transforming hero" elements from live-action hero shows like ''

Super Sentai The is a Japanese superhero team media franchise consisting of television series and films produced by Toei Company and Bandai, and aired by TV Asahi. The shows are of the '' tokusatsu'' genre, featuring live action characters and colorfu ...

'' and ''

Kamen Rider The , also known as ''Masked Rider Series'' (until ''Kamen Rider Decade, Decade'' and except Thailand), is a Japanese superhero fiction, superhero media franchise consisting of tokusatsu television programs, films, manga, and anime, created by ...

'' with traditionally feminine interests, such as romance and fashion. Up until then, magical girl series were comedic and the characters' use of magic only exacerbated social conflict. A key attribute of the transformations in ''Sailor Moon'' is that they focused on exaggerating the characters' beauty through make-up and fashion, negating the link between cuteness and weakness traditionally seen in women. In addition, unlike previous magical girl series, ''Sailor Moon'' featured a team of magical girls as the main characters, with male characters supporting them in battle. The format of using fighting, transforming heroines became popular and were used in other magical girl series following ''Sailor Moon''. Series that attempted to capitalize on ''Sailor Moon'' success include ''

Akazukin Chacha is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Min Ayahana. It was serialized in Shueisha's ''shōjo'' manga magazine ''Ribon'' from 1992 to 2000 and collected in 13 bound volumes. The series is loosely based on the fairy tale Lit ...

'', whose anime adaptation created an original arc featuring "transforming heroine" characteristics; ''

Cutie Honey Flash is a Japanese anime television series produced by Toei Animation, part of the Go Nagai's ''Cutie Honey'' franchise. Airing in Japan, the series assumed the timeslot of '' Sailor Stars'', the final story arc of the long-running ''Sailor Moon ...

'' (1997), a remake of the original male-oriented science fiction series ''

Cutie Honey is a Japanese Shōnen manga, shōnen manga series written and illustrated by Go Nagai. First appearing in ''Weekly Shōnen Champion''s 41st issue of 1973, the series ran until April 1974. It follows an android girl named Honey Kisara ...

'' (1973) for a young female demographic; and ''

Wedding Peach is a Japanese '' shōjo'' manga written by Sukehiro Tomita and illustrated by Nao Yazawa that was originally serialized in Shogakukan's ''Ciao'' magazine. In North America, it was translated and published by VIZ Media in its entirety, c ...

''. In the following years, the magical girl genre became diversified. While ''Sailor Moon'' also drew in male fans, ''

Cardcaptor Sakura , abbreviated as ''CCS'', is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by the manga group Clamp. Serialized monthly in the ''shōjo'' manga magazine '' Nakayoshi'' from the June 1996 to August 2000 issues, it was also published in ...

'' (1998) was extremely popular among men in spite of its target demographic for including themes such as

cosplay Cosplay, a blend word of "costume play", is an activity and performance art in which participants called cosplayers wear costumes and Fashion accessory, fashion accessories to represent a specific Character (arts), character. Cosplayers often i ...

boys' love , also known by its abbreviation , is a genre of fictional media originating in Japan that depicts Homoeroticism, homoerotic relationships between male characters. It is typically created by women for a female audience, distinguishing it fro ...

, , and . ''Cardcaptor Sakura'' was also one of the series that influenced the idea of , which was integrated into later magical girl series aimed at an adult male audience. Likewise, ''Cutie Honey Flash'' also drew in a male audience who were fans of the original ''Cutie Honey'' series.

2000–present: Expanding demographic and parody works

After the end of ''

Ojamajo Doremi , alternatively titled ''Magical DoReMi'' in English, is a Japanese fantasy magical girl anime television series produced by Toei Animation. It focuses on a group of elementary school girls, led by Doremi Harukaze, who become wit ...

'' (1999), Toei Animation's first original magical girl anime series since 1985, ''

Pretty Cure The is a Japanese magical girl anime franchise created by Izumi Todo and produced by ABC Television, ABC Animation, ADK Emotions and Toei Animation. Each series revolves around a group of magical girls known as Pretty Cures who battle ag ...

'' was broadcast in 2004, with new installments broadcast yearly. Similar to ''Sailor Moon'', ''Pretty Cure'' drew influences from hero shows, but unlike the former, it was heavily focused on action and used the same talents who worked on ''

'' and ''

''. This helped the series achieve widespread demographic appeal outside of young girls. At the same time, the target demographic of magical girl shows expanded. With more late-night anime being produced in the early 2000s, magical girl shows aimed at an older male demographic were produced, a notable one being ''

'' (2004), a

spin-off Spin-off, Spin Off, Spin-Off, or Spinoff may refer to: Entertainment and media *Spinoff (media), a media work derived from an existing work *''The Spinoff'', a New Zealand current affairs magazine * ''Spin Off'' (Canadian game show), a 2013 Canad ...

originating from the adult game series ''

Triangle Heart , abbreviated as ''Toraha'', is a series of eroge by Janis and OVAs by Mook and Seven Arcs that is best known for its spin-off series, ''Magical Girl Lyrical Nanoha''. The name comes from the fact that each game focuses on a "triangle" of ...

''. As the series were targeted towards older audiences, this allowed for dark and mature themes to be explored, including death and the price of magical power. The magical girl genre earned renewed popularity in the 2010s with the advent of ''

Puella Magi Madoka Magica , also known simply as ''Madoka Magica'', is a Japanese anime television series created by Magica Quartet, and animated by Shaft. The story follows a group of middle school girls, led by protagonist Madoka Kaname, who make supernat ...

'' (2011), whose mature themes and darker approach earned acclaim from viewers and critics outside the conventional audience group. Other examples of late-night magical girl anime include ''

Day Break Illusion is an original anime series produced by AIC and Aniplex. The series aired in Japan between July and September 2013, and was simulcast by Crunchyroll. A manga adaptation was serialized in the June 2013 issue of Square Enix's online magazine ...

'' (2013) and ''

Fate/Kaleid Liner Prisma Illya is a Japanese manga series by Hiroshi Hiroyama (also known as KALMIA), serialized in Kadokawa Shoten's ''Comp Ace'' magazine from 2007 to 2008. It is an alternate universe spin-off of the ''Fate/stay night'' visual novel by Type-Moo ...

'' (2013). Though transforming heroine shows remain popular, traditional magical girl series featuring witches demonstrating the importance of hopes and dreams, such as ''

Tweeny Witches is a Japanese anime television and original video animation series. Produced by Studio 4°C, the series is directed by Yoshiharu Ashino and written by Shinji Obara. Inspired by '' Through the Looking-Glass'', the story follows a young huma ...

'' (2004) and ''

Little Witch Academia is a Japanese anime franchise created by Yoh Yoshinari and produced by Trigger. The original short film, directed by Yoshinari and written by Masahiko Otsuka, was released in theaters in March 2013 as part of the Young Animator T ...

'' (2013) were still produced. In addition to late-night magical girl series, media exploring the idea of male characters as magical girls (colloquially known as "magical boys") were introduced, most of them as comedic parodies. ''

Kimagure Orange Road is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Izumi Matsumoto. It was serialized in ''Weekly Shōnen Jump'' magazine from 1984 to 1987, with the chapters collected in 18 ''tankōbon'' volumes by Shueisha. The story follows teen ...

'' (1985) introduced audiences to the idea of a "magical boy" character. ''

Cute High Earth Defense Club Love! is a 2015 magical boy anime television series created by Kurari Umatani and produced by Diomedéa. The series is directed by Shinji Takamatsu and written by Michiko Yokote. The series premiered on January 6, 2015. The anime is licens ...

'' (2015) features a cast of male characters parodying the magical girl concepts combined with growing interest in shows aimed at a audience. Other magical boy parodies include ''

Is This a Zombie? , also known as for short, is a Japanese light novel series by Shinichi Kimura, with illustrations by Kobuichi and Muririn. Since January 2009, 19 volumes have been published by Fujimi Shobo under their Fujimi Fantasia Bunko imprint. There ...

'' (2011) and ''

Magical Girl Ore is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Icchokusen Mōkon. It began serialization in Fusion Product's ''Comic Be'' magazine in 2012, and was collected in two ''tankōbon'' volumes. The series was renewed for serialization in the ...

'' (2018).

Concepts and themes

Femininity and youth

Magical girl series use elements associated with female interests, such as accessories associated with traditional femininity, child-rearing, and romance. Magical girl characters are typically 10 to 14 years old, with cute features and an appearance resembling a princess or an

singer. Older women are usually portrayed as villains. Professor Bill Ellis noted that in traditional

Japanese folklore Japanese folklore encompasses the informally learned folk traditions of Japan and the Japanese people as expressed in its oral traditions, Tradition, customs, and material culture. In Japanese, the term is used to describe folklore. The Folklor ...

, powerful women were depicted to be monstrous, similar to

Oni An ( ) is a kind of ''yōkai'', demon, orc, ogre, or troll in Japanese folklore. They are believed to live in caves or deep in the mountains or in hell. Oni are known for their superhuman strength and have been associated with powers like th ...

Transformation

In magical girl series, the main female characters transform into prettier, more mature-looking versions of themselves who have special powers, an idea originating from ''

''. Unlike hero shows, the items used to initiate transformation are often "cute" accessories associated with femininity and beauty. The first example of an item used to aid the transformation is the anime adaptation of ''

'', in which Akko uses a

to transform; since the broadcast of the series, compacts are commonly used as a transformation item.

Heroine elements

The is a concept adapted from hero media that was first popularized by ''

'' in the early 1990s; it has been a staple of magical girl series since. The transforming heroine features an ordinary schoolgirl who changes into an "adorable" costume with "cute" accessories; she then uses a sceptre (or a similar weapon) to channel magical energy in order to fight against the forces of evil. This format has allowed magical girls to be viewed as

superheroine A superhero or superheroine is a fictional character who typically possesses Superpower (ability), ''superpowers'' or abilities beyond those of ordinary people, is frequently costumed concealing their identity, and fits the role of the hero, t ...

s, especially in the West during the

girl power Girl power is a slogan that encourages and celebrates women's empowerment, independence, confidence and strength. The slogan's invention is credited to the US punk band Bikini Kill, who published a zine called ''Bikini Kill #2: Girl Power'' in ...

movement of the 1990s. Comparisons have been drawn to Western superheroines like ''

Buffy the Vampire Slayer ''Buffy the Vampire Slayer'' is an American supernatural fiction, supernatural drama television series created by writer and director Joss Whedon. The concept is based on the Buffy the Vampire Slayer (film), 1992 film, also written by Whedon, a ...

'' and ''

Wonder Woman Wonder Woman is a superheroine who appears in American comic books published by DC Comics. The character first appeared in ''All Star Comics'' Introducing Wonder Woman, #8, published October 21, 1941, with her first feature in ''Sensation Comic ...

'', but unlike the former, "transforming heroine" series use femininity to weaponize and also features young girls instead of women, while older women are typically portrayed as villains in magical girl series.

Romance and friendship

A common goal for magical girl characters since the 1960s is romance that eventually results in marriage. While heterosexual romance was present and received focus in magical girl series, post–''Sailor Moon'' works saw a diminished presence in male characters in favor of focusing on the friendships between the main female characters. Kevin Cooley observes that the magical girl genre “regularly produces characters ranging from the ambiguously but evocatively queer to conformity with LGTBQ+ categories.” Akiko Sugawa suggests that the future of magical girl shows may include rebellion against sexual norms, using ''

'' as an example of relationships favored over heterosexual relationships.

Media

Live-action television series

In 1989,

Shotaro Ishinomori , né , was a Japanese manga artist, cartoonist, writer and director. Known as the "King of Manga" (漫画の帝王 (''Manga no Teiou)'' or 漫画の王様 (''Manga no Ousama)''), he is regarded as one of the greatest and most influential mang ...

produced the first live-action magical girl series, ', as part of the ''

Toei Fushigi Comedy Series The is a series of Japanese tokusatsu programs which was produced by Toei Company and was aired by Fuji TV from 9:00 am to 9:30 am on Sunday. Features This series is known as various superheroes similar to the ''Kamen Rider'', ''Super Sentai' ...

''. The popularity of the show led to five more installments produced, including ''

La Belle Fille Masquée Poitrine is a magical girl tokusatsu comedy series created by Shotaro Ishinomori, and the 11th installment of the Toei Fushigi Comedy Series. The series ran from January 7, 1990 to December 30, 1990 for a total of 51 episodes. Synopsis It's the first da ...

'' and ', with all of them categorized as the . The shows were viewed as a female counterpart to series aimed at young boys, such as ''

'', ''

'', and ''

Ultraman The , also known as ''Ultraman'', is a Japanese science fiction media franchise owned and produced by Tsuburaya Productions, which began with the television series '' Ultra Q'' in 1966. The franchise has expanded into many television shows, fi ...

''; however, interest in the genre declined in the early 1990s due to competing toy sales with ''Sailor Moon'' and other magical girl anime. Live-action magical girl series were revived with the ''

Girls × Heroine is a Japanese Tokusatsu television series produced by TV Tokyo, Dentsu, OLM, Inc. and created by Takashi Miike. Each season revolves around magical girls who fight against enemies, with a toy line produced by Tomy, Takara Tomy. After ''Idol × ...

'' series, beginning with ''

Idol × Warrior Miracle Tunes! is a Japanese television series that aired from April 2, 2017, to March 25, 2018, on TV Tokyo. The show is the first installment of the ''Girls × Heroine Series'' conceived by Takara Tomy and OLM, Inc. with the assistance of Shogakukan and LDH ...

'' in 2017.

Merchandise

Magical girl series aimed at young girls were often marketed with a merchandise line, with Kumiko Saito saying that magical girl anime is best understood as "twenty-five-minute advertisements for toy merchandise", highlighting the high production costs and the involvement of

Bandai is a Japanese multinational corporation, multinational toy manufacturer and distributor headquartered in Taitō, Taitō, Tokyo. Its international branches, Bandai Namco Toys & Collectables America and Bandai UK, are respectively headquartered ...

in ''

'' and ''

''. Reiko Yamashita also mentioned ''

'' as an example of a series with mass toy production. ''

'' has become Japan's fifth highest grossing franchise as of 2010 in part due to its high merchandise sales. For the ''

'' series,

Shogakukan is a Japanese publisher of comics, magazines, light novels, dictionaries, literature, non-fiction, home media, and other media in Japan. Shogakukan founded Shueisha, which also founded Hakusensha. These are three separate companies, but ...

project manager Reiko Sasaki stated that she had to create scenarios on how to integrate the toys into the show. ''

'' was the earliest example of having a merchandise line and was a "huge hit". Toys from the 1980s were commonly in bright colors and were mostly compact cases or sticks, with the character's face sometimes printed on them. From 1990 to 1994, toy sets began including pendants as part of transformation items, along with feminine motifs, such as hearts and stars; most of the toys were pink at the time. From 1995 to 1999, the toys became more colorful. For ''

'' 20th anniversary, in 2013,

, the producer of their toy line, released a cosmetics line based on transformation items seen in the series, aimed at adult women who grew up with the show. This was followed by a life-sized replica of Sailor Moon's Moon Stick, which Bandai produced as part of their merchandise line aimed at adult collectors, as well as a jewelry line. In the years that followed, other magical girl franchises released merchandise lines aimed towards adult women, through collaborations with fashion brands such as 's Japan Label, , , SuperGroupies, and Favorite.

Non-Japanese works

Asia

In China, ''

Balala the Fairies Balala may refer to: Balala the Fairies * Balala the Fairies, Chinese magical girl metaseries created and produced by Alpha Group ** Balala the Fairies: The Movie, 2013 live-action adaptation of the animated series ** Balala the Fairies: The Magic ...

'' is an ongoing franchise originating as a live-action series before transferring to animation, though it was accused of plagiarizing ''

''.

Europe and the United States

Similar to Japan, the transforming heroine concept coined by ''

'' saw popularity when the show was broadcast overseas in the 1990s due to the

movement taking place in Europe and the United States at the time. The influence of ''Sailor Moon'' has led magical girls to be associated with

s in the West. Notable examples include ''

W.I.T.C.H. ''W.I.T.C.H.'' (stylised as ''W.i.t.c.h.'') is an Italian fantasy Disney comics series created by Elisabetta Gnone, Alessandro Barbucci, and Barbara Canepa. The series features a group of five teenage girls who become the guardians of the classi ...

'' (2001) and ''

Winx Club ''Winx Club'' is an animated television series co-produced by Rainbow S.p.A., Rainbow and, later, Nickelodeon. It was created and directed by Italian animator Iginio Straffi. It premiered on 28January 2004, becoming a ratings success in Ita ...

'' (2004) in Italy; and ''

Totally Spies! ''Totally Spies!'' is a French anime-influenced animated spy-fi series created by Vincent Chalvon-Demersay and David Michel mainly produced by French company Zodiak Kids & Family France, with seasons three to five being co-produced with Cana ...

'' (2001), ''

LoliRock ''LoliRock'' is a French animated television series produced by Marathon Media and Zodiak Kids with the participation of France Télévisions and The Walt Disney Company France. It was created by Jean Louis-Vandestoc along with David Michel an ...

'' (2014), and '' Miraculous: Tales of Ladybug & Cat Noir'' (2015) in France. Animated series from the United States, including ''

The Powerpuff Girls ''The Powerpuff Girls'' is an American Superhero fiction, superhero animated television series created by animator Craig McCracken and produced by Hanna-Barbera (later Cartoon Network Studios) for Cartoon Network. The show centers on Blossom ...

'' (1998), ''

Bee and PuppyCat ''Bee and PuppyCat'' is an American animated television series created and written by Natasha Allegri. The series revolves around Bee (voiced by Allyn Rachel), an unemployed woman in her early twenties, who encounters a mysterious creature nam ...

'' (2013), ''

Steven Universe ''Steven Universe'' is an American animated television series created by Rebecca Sugar for Cartoon Network. It tells the coming-of-age story of a young boy, Steven Universe (character), Steven Universe (Zach Callison), who lives with the Crys ...

'' (2013), ''

Star vs. the Forces of Evil ''Star vs. the Forces of Evil'' is an American animated magical girl television series created by Daron Nefcy and developed by Jordana Arkin and Dave Wasson, which aired on Disney Channel and Disney XD. It is the first Disney XD series created b ...

'' (2015), and ''

Magical Girl Friendship Squad ''Magical Girl Friendship Squad'' is an American adult animated magical girl sitcom created by Kelsey Stephanides and starring Anna Akana and Quinta Brunson. It follows two directionless young women who must figure out how to save the Universe. T ...

'' (2020), have been influenced by magical girl themes and reference them. Characters in '' My Little Pony: Equestria Girls'' are described as "full-time students and part-time magical pony girls". The influence of the genre has also been seen in Western comics and graphic novels, such as '' Agents of the Realm'' (2014), '' Zodiac Starforce'' (2015), and ''

Sleepless Domain ''Sleepless Domain'' is an ongoing American webcomic and graphic novel series created by Mary Cagle and published by Hiveworks. It has been serialized online since April 6, 2015, with its chapters collected into two print volumes as of 2024. Th ...

'' (2015).

Critical analysis

Magical girl series have been linked to

female empowerment Women's empowerment (or female empowerment) may be defined in several method, including accepting women's viewpoints, making an effort to seek them and raising the status of women through education, awareness, literacy, equal status in society, ...

since the 1970s, from exploring

female sexuality Human female sexuality encompasses a broad range of behaviors and processes, including female sexual identity and sexual behavior, the physiological, psychological, social, cultural, political, and spiritual or religious aspects of sexual activ ...

to weaponizing femininity. Aside from feminine gender norms from the genre's defiance against female gender roles, the magical girl genre has also influenced a shift in male gender norms as the stigma between traditional femininity and weakness were removed. Akiko Shimada's 2011 dissertation ''Representations of Girls in Japanese Magical Girl TV Animation Programmes from 1966 to 2003 and Japanese Female Audiences' Understanding of Them'' references Yokokawa (1991) and Murase (2000) who state that in Japanese language, the word "shojo" is always used in third person. Young girls do not refer to themselves as "shojo". This reflects on how narratives about shojo are crafted from a third-party, often male lens.

Genre history

1953–1971: Early magical girl works

1972–1979: series

1980–1989: Transition from to magical girl

1990–1999: Transforming heroine and diversification

2000–present: Expanding demographic and parody works

Concepts and themes

Femininity and youth

Transformation

Heroine elements

Romance and friendship

Media

Live-action television series

Merchandise

Non-Japanese works

Asia

Europe and the United States

Critical analysis

See also

References

Further reading