The Luiseño or Payómkawichum are an

Indigenous people of California Indigenous peoples of California, commonly known as Indigenous Californians or Native Californians, are a diverse group of nations and peoples that are indigenous to the geographic area within the current boundaries of California before and afte ...

who, at the time of the first contacts with the Spanish in the 16th century, inhabited the coastal area of southern California, ranging from the present-day southern part of

Los Angeles County Los Angeles County, officially the County of Los Angeles and sometimes abbreviated as LA County, is the most populous county in the United States, with 9,663,345 residents estimated in 2023. Its population is greater than that of 40 individua ...

to the northern part of

San Diego County San Diego County (), officially the County of San Diego, is a county in the southwest corner of the U.S. state of California, north to its border with Mexico. As of the 2020 census, the population was 3,298,634; it is the second-most populous ...

, and inland . In the

Luiseño language The Luiseño language is a Uto-Aztecan language of California spoken by the Luiseño, a Native Americans in the United States, Native American people who at the time of first contact with the Spanish in the 16th century inhabited the coastal ar ...

, the people call themselves ''Payómkawichum'' (also spelled Payómkowishum), meaning "People of the West." After the establishment of Mission San Luis Rey de Francia (The Mission of Saint Louis King of France), "the Payómkawichum began to be called San Luiseños, and later, just Luiseños by Spanish missionaries due to their proximity to this San Luis Rey mission. Today there are six

federally recognized tribes This is a list of federally recognized tribes in the contiguous United States. There are also federally recognized Alaska Native tribes. , 574 Indian tribes are legally recognized by the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) of the United States.

of Luiseño bands based in southern California, all with reservations. Another organized band is not federally recognized.

History

Pre-colonization

The Payómkawichum were successful in utilizing a number of natural resources to provide food and clothing. They had a close relationship with their natural environment. They used many of the native plants, harvesting many kinds of seeds, berries, nuts, fruits, and vegetables for a varied and nutritious diet. The land also was inhabited by many different species of animals which the men hunted for game and skins. Hunters took antelopes, bobcats, deer, elk, foxes, mice, mountain lions, rabbits, wood rats, river otters, ground squirrels, and a wide variety of insects. The Luiseño used toxins leached from the nuts of

California buckeye ''Aesculus californica'', commonly known as the California buckeye or California horse-chestnut, is a species of buckeye native to California and southwestern Oregon. Description Aesculus californica is a large deciduous shrub or small tree, u ...

to stupefy fish in order to harvest them in mountain creeks. Estimates for the pre-contact populations of most native groups in California have varied substantially. In the 1920s,

A. L. Kroeber Alfred Louis Kroeber ( ; June 11, 1876 – October 5, 1960) was an American cultural anthropologist. He received his PhD under Franz Boas at Columbia University in 1901, the first doctorate in anthropology awarded by Columbia. He was also the fir ...

put the 1770 population of the Luiseño (including the Juaneño) at 4,000–5,000; he estimated the population in 1910 as 500. The historian Raymond C. White proposed a historic population of 10,000 in his work of the 1960s.

Pablo Tac Pablo Tac (c. 1822–1841) was a Luiseño people, Luiseño (''Quechnajuichom'' also spelled "Qéchngawichum") Amerindian, Indian and indigenous scholar who provided a rare contemporary Native Americans in the United States, Native American perspe ...

, born in 1820, recorded, "perhaps from oral history and official records" that approximately five thousand people were living in Payómkawichum territory prior to the arrival of the Spanish.

Mission period

The first Spanish missions were established in California in 1769. For nearly 30 years, Payómkawichum "who lived in the autonomous territories on the mesas and coastal valleys" in the western region of their traditional territory, "witnessed the constant incursion of caravans that moved north and south through their land on El Camino Real." Spanish missionaries established

Mission San Luis Rey de Francia Mission San Luis Rey de Francia () is a former Spanish mission in San Luis Rey, a neighborhood in Oceanside, California. This Mission lent its name to the Luiseño tribe of Mission Indians. At its prime, Mission San Luis Rey's structures an ...

entirely within the borders of Payómkawichum territory in 1798. Known as the "King of the Missions," it was founded on June 13, 1798, by Father

Fermín Francisco de Lasuén Fermín or Fermin may refer to: * Fermin, Spanish saint * Fermin (name), Spanish name and surname * Fermin IV Fermin (also Firmin, from Latin ''Firminus''; Spanish ''Fermín'') was a holy man and martyr, traditionally venerated as the co- patron ...

, located in what is now

Oceanside, California Oceanside is a beach city in the North County (San Diego area), North County area of San Diego County, California, United States. The city had a population of 174,068 at the 2020 United States census, making it the most populous city in the Nort ...

, in northern

. It was the Spanish

First Military District The First Military District of the U.S. Army was one of five temporary administrative units of the U.S. War Department that existed in the American South. The district was stipulated by the Reconstruction Acts during the Reconstruction period fo ...

Mexican period

The

Mexican Empire Mexican Empire may refer to: * First Mexican Empire The Mexican Empire (, ) was a constitutional monarchy and the first independent government of Mexico. It was also the only former viceroyalty of the Spanish Empire to establish a monarchy af ...

assumed ownership of Payómkawichum lands after defeating Spain in the

Mexican War of Independence The Mexican War of Independence (, 16 September 1810 – 27 September 1821) was an armed conflict and political process resulting in Mexico's independence from the Spanish Empire. It was not a single, coherent event, but local and regional ...

in 1821. The following year, Mexican troops confiscated all coastal lands from the Payómkawichum in 1822, granting much of the land to Mexican settlers, who became known as

Californios Californios (singular Californio) are Californians of Spaniards, Spanish descent, especially those descended from settlers of the 17th through 19th centuries before California was annexed by the United States. California's Spanish language in C ...

, to develop the land for agriculture.

Mexican-American War

The Payómkawichum did not actively participate in the war, but fell victim to the violence following the

Battle of San Pasqual The Battle of San Pasqual, also spelled San Pascual, was a military encounter that occurred during the Mexican–American War in what is now the San Pasqual Valley, San Diego, California, San Pasqual Valley community in the county of San Diego, ...

. Eleven

Californio Californios (singular Californio) are Californians of Spaniards, Spanish descent, especially those descended from settlers of the 17th through 19th centuries before California was annexed by the United States. California's Spanish language in C ...

lancers from the battle arrived at

Rancho Pauma Rancho Pauma was a Mexican land grant in present-day Pauma Valley, in San Diego County, California, given in 1844 by Governor Manuel Micheltorena to José Antonio Serrano, Blas Aguilar, and José Antonio Aguilar. The grant extended along the S ...

and stole horses from the Pauma Band of the Luiseno. The Pauma Band apprehended the thieves and sought to punish them and initially let them off with a warning. However, an American present at the trial successfully convinced the Luiseño to execute them, leading to the execution of all Californio thieves known to the Californios as the

Pauma Massacre The Pauma massacre occurred in December 1846, at Pauma Valley north of Escondido, California. Luiseño Indians killed eleven Mexicans, Californio lancers who had stolen horses from them. The action was related to a series of regional conflicts du ...

. News of the execution reached the Mexican General

José María Flores General José María Flores (1818–1866) was a captain in the Mexican Army and was a member of ''la otra banda''. He was appointed Governor and ''Comandante General'' ''pro tem'' of Alta California from November 1846 to January 1847, and defen ...

in Los Ángeles, he sent a Mexican force under

José del Carmen Lugo The Lugo family of California were prominent during the periods of Spanish and Mexican rule. They were among the early colonists who became known as ''Californios''. Francisco Salvador Lugo Francisco Salvador Lugo (1740–1805), born in Sinaloa, ...

in retaliation to execute the chiefs responsible for executing the Californios. Along the way Lugo met with a group of

Cahuilla The Cahuilla, also known as ʔívil̃uqaletem or Ivilyuqaletem, are a Native Americans in the United States, Native American people of the various tribes of the Cahuilla Nation, living in the inland areas of southern California. ...

led by Cooswootna (Juan Antonio), who decided to join forces to attack their Payómkawichum rival. News of the advance reached

Temecula Temecula (; , ; Luiseño: ''Temeekunga'') is a city in southwestern Riverside County, California, United States. The city had a population of 110,003 as of the 2020 census and was incorporated on December 1, 1989. The city is a tourist and ...

, leading the Payómkawichum to hide in the nearby caves and canyons. The allied forces took the high ground on the meadows and the Payómkawichum troops charged up the hill to meet them, leading to the

Temecula massacre The Temecula Massacre took place in December 1846 east of present-day Temecula, California, United States. It was part of a series of related events in the Mexican–American War. A combined force of Californio militia and Cahuilla Indians att ...

. The battle killed over 100 Temecula Payómkawichum and the Payómkawichum were defeated. The captured soldiers were handed over to the Cahuilla, who executed all of the prisoners. The

Mormon Battalion The Mormon Battalion was the only religious unit in United States military history in federal service, recruited solely from one religious body and having a religious title as the unit designation. The volunteers served from July 1846 to Jul ...

later reached Temecula and allowed the survivors to bury their dead.

American period

After the war, Payómkawichum leaders entered negotiations to sign the Treaty of Temecula and Treaty of San Luis Rey to protect their lands, but the treaties remained unratified. After the admission of the State of California, the state allowed White Americans to impose indentured servitude on

Indigenous Californian Indigenous peoples of California, commonly known as Indigenous Californians or Native Californians, are a diverse group of nations and peoples that are indigenous to the geographic area within the current boundaries of California before and afte ...

s under the Act for the Governance and Protection of Indians. Luiseno adobe 1910

In 1875, President

Ulysses S. Grant Ulysses S. Grant (born Hiram Ulysses Grant; April 27, 1822July 23, 1885) was the 18th president of the United States, serving from 1869 to 1877. In 1865, as Commanding General of the United States Army, commanding general, Grant led the Uni ...

allowed reservations to be established in the area. That same year, the state of California evicted the Payómkawichum in the

Temecula Valley The Temecula Valley (Spanish language, Spanish: ''Valle de Temecula'') is a graben rift valley in western Riverside County, California. The Temecula Valley is one of the graben valleys making up the Elsinore Trough, created by the Elsinore Fau ...

to be redistributed to American ranchers. In 1882, another round of reservations was permitted to be established under President Chester A. Arthur after the details of the Temecula eviction scheme were revealed.

Boarding school A boarding school is a school where pupils live within premises while being given formal instruction. The word "boarding" is used in the sense of "room and board", i.e. lodging and meals. They have existed for many centuries, and now extend acr ...

programs were established to assimilate the Payómkawichum into subservience and American culture, whose children were enrolled into the Sherman Indian School in Riverside. The Pauma,

Pala Pala may refer to: Places Chad *Pala, Chad, the capital of the region of Mayo-Kebbi Ouest Estonia * Pala, Kose Parish, village in Kose Parish, Harju County * Pala, Kuusalu Parish, village in Kuusalu Parish, Harju County * Pala, Järva County, ...

, and Rincon Bands sued for the right to enroll their children at local schools. Gems were discovered around the Pala Reservation in the 1890s, extracting pink

tourmaline Tourmaline ( ) is a crystalline silicate mineral, silicate mineral group in which boron is chemical compound, compounded with chemical element, elements such as aluminium, iron, magnesium, sodium, lithium, or potassium. This gemstone comes in a ...

pegmatite A pegmatite is an igneous rock showing a very coarse texture, with large interlocking crystals usually greater in size than and sometimes greater than . Most pegmatites are composed of quartz, feldspar, and mica, having a similar silicic c ...

, and

morganite Morganite is an orange or pink variety of beryl and is also a gemstone. Morganite is mined in Brazil, Afghanistan, Mozambique, Namibia, the United States, and Madagascar. Morganite has grown in popularity since 2010. '' Brides'' and CNN have li ...

beryl (the latter being the first discovery of the gem of its kind). Pink tourmaline quickly became the top export as

Dowager Empress Empress dowager (also dowager empress or empress mother; ) is the English language translation of the title given to the mother or widow of a monarch, especially in regards to Chinese, Japanese, Korean, or Vietnamese monarchs in the Chinese cul ...

Cixi Empress Dowager Cixi ( ; 29 November 1835 – 15 November 1908) was a Manchu noblewoman of the Yehe Nara clan who effectively but periodically controlled the Chinese government in the late Qing dynasty as empress dowager and regent for almost 50 ...

of the

Qing dynasty The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing, was a Manchu-led Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China and an early modern empire in East Asia. The last imperial dynasty in Chinese history, the Qing dynasty was preceded by the ...

spoke highly of the gem in 1902, which became the tribe's main export until 1911 when the Dowager died. The Payómkawichum were allowed to pursue gambling operations on their reservations after its legalization in the 1980s, which allowed them to establish several casinos in their reservations in the 2000s, including but not limited to the Pala Casino Resort and Spa (2000), Pechanga Resort & Casino (2002), and Harrah's Resort Southern California (2004). This newfound wealth also allowed the Pechanga Band to purchase the naming rights to the San Diego Sports Arena, now known as Pechanga Arena. During the

October 2007 California wildfires The October 2007 California wildfires, also known as the Fall 2007 California firestorm, were a series of about thirty wildfires (17 of which became major wildfires) that began igniting across Southern California on October 20. At least 1,500 h ...

, the

Poomacha Fire The Witch Creek Fire, also known as the Witch Fire, was the second-largest wildfire of the 2007 California wildfire season, burning of land in San Diego County. Fanned by powerful Santa Ana winds, the Witch Creek Fire rapidly spread westwar ...

ravaged the

La Jolla Indian Reservation LA most frequently refers to Los Angeles, the second most populous city in the United States of America. La, LA, or L.A. may also refer to: Arts and entertainment Music *La (musical note), or A, the sixth note *"L.A.", a song by Elliott Smit ...

, destroying 92% of the reservation. State and federal agencies provided aid to rebuild the tribe's facilities and residents of the tribe were able to return to the reservation by the end of the next year.

Language

The Luiseño language belongs to the Cupan group of

Takic languages The Takic languages are a putative group of Uto-Aztecan languages historically spoken by a number of Indigenous peoples of California, Indigenous peoples of Southern California. Takic is grouped with the Tübatulabal language, Tubatulabal, Hopi la ...

, within the major

Uto-Aztecan The Uto-Aztecan languages are a family of native American languages, consisting of over thirty languages. Uto-Aztecan languages are found almost entirely in the Western United States and Mexico. The name of the language family reflects the common ...

family of languages. About 30 to 40 people speak the language. In some of the independent bands, individuals are studying the language, language preservation materials are being compiled, and singers sing traditional songs in the language. Pablo Tac, born at San Luis Rey in 1822, devised a written form of Luiseño language through "his study of Latin grammar and Spanish" while working "among international scholars in Rome." Although Tac had to conform to "Latin grammatical constructions, his word choice and his narrative form, along with his continual translation between Luiseño and Spanish, establish an Indigenous framework for understanding Luiseño."

Bands

Today Luiseño people are enrolled in the following recognized tribes and one unrecognized tribe:

Villages

Riverside County

* 'áaway, on a head branch of Santa Margarita River * Awa’, Aguanga * Chawimai, Los Duraznos, Cahuilla valley * Hurúmpa, west of Riverside * Méexa, on Santa Margarita River northwest of Temecula * Pawi, warm spring in middle of village at Cahuilla valley * Páayaxchi, on Elsinore Lake * Pichaang, Pechanga * Șuvóowu Șuvóova, east of San Jacinto Soboba * Táa'akwi, at the head of Santa Margarita River * Teméeku, east of Temecula

San Diego County

*'ahúuya, near the upper course of San Luis Rey River * 'akíipa, near Kahpa * 'áalapi, San Pascual south of the middle course of the San Luis Rey River * Húyyulkum, on the upper course of San Luis Rey River * 'ikáymay, near San Luis Rey Mission * Qáxpa, on the middle course of San Luis Rey River * Katúktu, between Santa Margarita and San Luis Rey Rivers, north of San Luis Rey * Qée'ish, Qéch, south of San Luis Rey Mission * Qewéw, on the upper course of San Luis Rey River * Kóolu, near the upper course of San Luis Rey River * Kúuki, on the upper course of San Luis Rey River * Kwáa'alam, on the lower course of San Luis Rey River * Maláamay, northeast of Pala * Mixéelum pompáwvo, near Escondido * Ngóoriva * Pa'áa'aw, near Tái

Palomar mountain Palomar Mountain ( ; ) is a mountain ridge in the Peninsular Ranges in northern San Diego County, California. It is known as the location of Palomar Observatory and Hale Telescope, and known for Palomar Mountain State Park. History The Luise� ...

* Páala, at Pala * Páalimay, on the coast between Buena Vista and Agua Hedionda Creeks, Carlsbad * Panakare, north of Escondido * Páașuku, near the headwaters of San Luis Rey River * Páawma, east of Pala Pauma * Pochóorivo, on the upper course of San Luis Rey River * Sóowmay, south of the middle course of San Luis Rey River * Șakíshmay (Luiseño or Diegueño), on the boundary line between the two peoples * Șíikapa, Palomar, west of Escondido * Táaxanashpa, La Jolla * Táakwish poșáppila, east of Palomar Mountain * Tá'i, close to Palomar Mountain * Tapá'may, north of Katúktu * Tómqav, west of Pala * 'úshmay, at Las Flores * Waxáwmay, Guajome on San Luis Rey River above San Luis Rey * Wiyóoya, at the mouth of San Luis Rey River * Wi'áasamay, east of San Luis Rey * Wáșxa, Rincon near the upper course of San Luis Rey River * Yamí', near Húyyulkum

Notable Luiseños

Richard Lee Bugbee Richard Lee Bugbee (February 6, 1948 – October 15, 2023) was a Native American of the Payómkawichum (Luiseño) people and culture keeper and ethnobotany instructor in San Diego, California. Early life Bugbee attributed his love of plant ...

(1948–2023), culture keeper and ethnobotany instructor * Pete Calac (1892–1968), football player * Freddy Herrera, musician * Sky Hopinka (b. 1984), is a visual artist and film-maker *

James Luna James Luna (February 9, 1950March 4, 2018) was a Puyukitchum, Ipai, and Mexican-American performance artist, photographer and multimedia installation artist. His work is best known for challenging the ways in which conventional museum exhibiti ...

(1950–2018), performance artist *

Bonita Wa Wa Calachaw Nuñez Bonita Wa Wa Calachaw Nuñez (December 25, 1888 May 12, 1972), also known as Wa Wa Chaw, Princess Wa Wa Chaw, and Wawa Calac Chaw or "Keep From the Water," was a Native American artist, activist, and writer. She was active in the Pan-Indianism, ...

(1888-1972), painter * Jamie Okuma (b. 1977), beadwork artist,

fashion designer Fashion design is the Art (skill), art of applied arts, applying design, aesthetics, clothing construction, and natural beauty to clothing and its Fashion accessory, accessories. It is influenced by diverse cultures and different trends and has va ...

Fritz Scholder Fritz William Scholder V (October 6, 1937 – February 10, 2005) was a Native American artist, who produced paintings, monotypes, lithographs, and sculptures. Scholder was an enrolled member of the La Jolla Band of Luiseño Indians, a federally r ...

(1937–2005), painter and sculptor * Ruth-Ann Thorn (b. 1965), art dealer, documentary film maker *

(1822–1841), scholar

References

;Citations ;Works cited * * * * *

External links

Soboba Band of Luiseño Indians official site

Pechanga Band of Luiseño Indians

San Luis Rey Band of Luiseño Indians official site
* {{DEFAULTSORT:Luiseno Mission Indians Indigenous peoples of California Native American tribes in Riverside County, California Native American tribes in San Diego County, California History of San Diego County, California Uto-Aztecan peoples