Los Solidarios
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''Los Solidarios'' (; or The Solidaristic) was a
Spanish anarchist Anarchism in Spain has historically gained some support and influence, especially before Francisco Franco's victory in the Spanish Civil War of 1936–1939, when it played an active political role and is considered the end of the golden age of c ...
militant group The Militant Group was an early British Trotskyist group, formed in 1935 by Denzil Dean Harber, former leader of the Marxist Group (UK), Marxist Group in the Independent Labour Party, ILP, as a separate entrism, entrist group inside the Labour Pa ...
, established in 1922 to combat the rise of ''
pistolerismo refers both to a specific period of Spanish history, between the general strike of August 1917 and Miguel Primo de Rivera, Primo de Rivera's Coup d'état, coup in September 1923, and to the social phenomenon spread in many areas of Spain during ...
'' and yellow syndicalism, which represented the interests of business owners. At first, the group organised the Catalan anarchist movement, stockpiled weapons and infiltrated the
Spanish Armed Forces The Spanish Armed Forces are in charge of guaranteeing the sovereignty and independence of the Spain, Kingdom of Spain, defending its territorial integrity and the constitutional order, according to the functions entrusted to them by the Spanish ...
. Following the assassination of
Salvador Seguí Salvador Seguí i Rubinat (23 September 1887, in Lleida – 10 March 1923, in Barcelona), known as ''El noi del sucre'' ("the sugar boy" in Catalan) for his habit of eating the sugar cubes served him with his coffee, was a Catalan anarcho-synd ...
, the
general secretary Secretary is a title often used in organizations to indicate a person having a certain amount of authority, Power (social and political), power, or importance in the organization. Secretaries announce important events and communicate to the org ...
of the anarchist
trade union centre Organizers within trade unions have sought to increase the bargaining power of workers in regards to collective bargaining by acting in collaboration with other trade unions. Multi-union organizing can take place on an informal basis, or on a ...
, the
Confederación Nacional del Trabajo The (CNT; ) is a Spanish anarcho-syndicalist national trade union center, trade union confederation. Founded in 1910 in Barcelona from groups brought together by the trade union ''Solidaridad Obrera (historical union), Solidaridad Obrera'', ...
(CNT), the group initiated its own campaign of targeted assassinations against officials who they held responsible for
state terrorism State terrorism is terrorism conducted by a state against its own citizens or another state's citizens. It contrasts with '' state-sponsored terrorism'', in which a violent non-state actor conducts an act of terror under sponsorship of a state. ...
. In 1923, ''Los Solidarios'' assassinated ''pistolero'' leader Ramón Laguía, the former governor of
Biscay Biscay ( ; ; ), is a province of the Basque Country (autonomous community), Basque Autonomous Community, heir of the ancient Lordship of Biscay, lying on the south shore of the Bay of Biscay, eponymous bay. The capital and largest city is Bilb ...
Fernando González Regueral, and the
Archbishop of Zaragoza The Archdiocese of Saragossa (; ) is a Latin diocese of the Catholic Church located in north-eastern Spain, in the province of Zaragoza (Saragossa in English), part of the autonomous community of Aragón. The archdiocese heads the ecclesiastical ...
Juan Soldevila ''Juan'' is a given name, the Spanish and Manx versions of ''John''. The name is of Hebrew origin and has the meaning "God has been gracious." It is very common in Spain and in other Spanish-speaking countries around the world and in the Philippi ...
. As news began to spread of an impending
military coup A military, also known collectively as armed forces, is a heavily armed, highly organized force primarily intended for warfare. Militaries are typically authorized and maintained by a sovereign state, with their members identifiable by a d ...
in the country, ''Los Solidarios'' sought to acquire weapons in order to resist the coup. The group robbed a branch of the
Bank of Spain The Bank of Spain (, ) is the national central bank for Spain within the Eurosystem. It was the Spanish central bank from 1874 to 1998, issuing the peseta. Since 2014, it has also been Spain's national competent authority within European Banki ...
in Xixón and used the money to buy rifles, but were ultimately unable to stop the
1923 Spanish coup d'état The coup d'état of Primo de Rivera took place in Spain between 13 and 15 September 1923 and was led by the then Captain General of Catalonia Miguel Primo de Rivera. It resulted in the establishment of the dictatorship of Primo de Rivera, mainly ...
, which resulted in the establishment of the
Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera General Miguel Primo de Rivera's dictatorship over Spain began with a coup on 13 September 1923 and ended with his resignation on 28 January 1930. It took place during the wider reign of King Alfonso XIII. In establishing his dictatorship, ...
. The group subsequently rushed to break its members out of prison and dispatched its most-wanted members to
Paris Paris () is the Capital city, capital and List of communes in France with over 20,000 inhabitants, largest city of France. With an estimated population of 2,048,472 residents in January 2025 in an area of more than , Paris is the List of ci ...
, where they used money from the Xixón robbery to set up a
publishing house Publishing is the activities of making information, literature, music, software, and other content, physical or digital, available to the public for sale or free of charge. Traditionally, the term publishing refers to the creation and distribu ...
. In exile, Spanish anarchists reorganised and began to prepare for an attempt to overthrow the dictatorship. In March 1924, the dictatorship carried out a series of raids against the weapons caches and safehouses of ''Los Solidarios''. Several of the group's members were imprisoned or executed, but others escaped capture. As repression in Spain intensified, the group member
Domingo Ascaso Domingo may refer to: People *Domingo (name), a Spanish name and list of people with that name *Domingo (producer) (born 1970), American hip-hop producer *Saint Dominic (1170–1221), Castilian Catholic priest, founder of the Friars popularly cal ...
plotted an
insurrection Rebellion is an uprising that resists and is organized against one's government. A rebel is a person who engages in a rebellion. A rebel group is a consciously coordinated group that seeks to gain political control over an entire state or a ...
to overthrow the dictatorship. On 6 November 1924, anarchists in Barcelona attempted to storm the Drassanes barracks, while exiled anarchists attempted to launch an offensive from France across the
Pyrenees The Pyrenees are a mountain range straddling the border of France and Spain. They extend nearly from their union with the Cantabrian Mountains to Cap de Creus on the Mediterranean coast, reaching a maximum elevation of at the peak of Aneto. ...
in the Basque Country and
Catalonia Catalonia is an autonomous community of Spain, designated as a ''nationalities and regions of Spain, nationality'' by its Statute of Autonomy of Catalonia of 2006, Statute of Autonomy. Most of its territory (except the Val d'Aran) is situate ...
. The insurrection attempt was defeated on all fronts and many anarchists were imprisoned, exiled or killed. By the end of 1924, members of the ''Los Solidarios'' were either in prison, in exile or operating clandestinely in Spain. After the proclamation of the
Second Spanish Republic The Spanish Republic (), commonly known as the Second Spanish Republic (), was the form of democratic government in Spain from 1931 to 1939. The Republic was proclaimed on 14 April 1931 after the deposition of Alfonso XIII, King Alfonso XIII. ...
in 1931, ''Los Solidarios'' was reunited and reorganised into the '' Nosotros'' group.


Background

By the turn of the 20th century in
Spain Spain, or the Kingdom of Spain, is a country in Southern Europe, Southern and Western Europe with territories in North Africa. Featuring the Punta de Tarifa, southernmost point of continental Europe, it is the largest country in Southern Eur ...
, the industrialised region of
Catalonia Catalonia is an autonomous community of Spain, designated as a ''nationalities and regions of Spain, nationality'' by its Statute of Autonomy of Catalonia of 2006, Statute of Autonomy. Most of its territory (except the Val d'Aran) is situate ...
was facing constant protests and
strike action Strike action, also called labor strike, labour strike in British English, or simply strike, is a work stoppage caused by the mass refusal of employees to Working class, work. A strike usually takes place in response to employee grievances. Str ...
s. The
Spanish government The government of Spain () is the central government which leads the executive branch and the General State Administration of the Kingdom of Spain. The Government consists of the Prime Minister and the Ministers; the prime minister has the o ...
responded with political repression, imprisoning and executing many workers. During
World War I World War I or the First World War (28 July 1914 – 11 November 1918), also known as the Great War, was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War I, Allies (or Entente) and the Central Powers. Fighting to ...
, the
economy of Spain The economy of Spain is a highly developed social market economy. It is the world's 12th largest by nominal GDP and the sixth-largest in Europe (fifth excluding Russia). Spain is a member of the European Union and the eurozone, as well as th ...
experienced rapid growth due to the preservation of Spanish neutrality. This increased the influence of the organised working class in the Catalan capital of
Barcelona Barcelona ( ; ; ) is a city on the northeastern coast of Spain. It is the capital and largest city of the autonomous community of Catalonia, as well as the second-most populous municipality of Spain. With a population of 1.6 million within c ...
, where many migrant workers were moving to participate in the industrial economy. The city soon gained a reputation for
Bohemianism Bohemianism is a social and cultural movement that has, at its core, a way of life away from society's conventional norms and expectations. The term originates from the French ''bohème'' and spread to the English-speaking world. It was used to ...
, which attracted many activists of the growing
Spanish anarchist movement Anarchism in Spain has historically gained some support and influence, especially before Francisco Franco's victory in the Spanish Civil War of 1936–1939, when it played an active political role and is considered the end of the golden age of cl ...
. At the time, Spanish politics was largely dominated by the clergy, aristocracy and military. To challenge this ruling elite, Catalan business owners sought to gain political influence by displacing the
two-party system A two-party system is a political party system in which two major political parties consistently dominate the political landscape. At any point in time, one of the two parties typically holds a majority in the legislature and is usually referr ...
and stoking
Catalan nationalist Catalan nationalism promotes the idea that the Catalan people form a distinct nation and national identity. A related term is Catalanism (, ), which is more related to regionalism and tends to have a wider meaning, most people who define themsel ...
sentiments. During the war, business owners accumulated vast amounts of wealth, while the country at large fell into an
economic crisis A financial crisis is any of a broad variety of situations in which some financial assets suddenly lose a large part of their nominal value. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, many financial crises were associated with banking panics, and ma ...
. To
balance the budget A balanced budget (particularly that of a government) is a budget in which revenues are equal to expenditures. Thus, neither a budget deficit nor a budget surplus exists (the accounts "balance"). More generally, it is a budget that has no budget ...
, the
Finance Minister A ministry of finance is a ministry or other government agency in charge of government finance, fiscal policy, and financial regulation. It is headed by a finance minister, an executive or cabinet position . A ministry of finance's portfoli ...
Santiago Alba proposed the implementation of a
corporation tax A corporate tax, also called corporation tax or company tax or corporate income tax, is a type of direct tax levied on the income or capital of corporations and other similar legal entities. The tax is usually imposed at the national level, but i ...
. This was staunchly opposed by
Francesc Cambó Francesc Cambó i Batlle (; 2 September 1876 – 30 April 1947) was a Conservatism, conservative Spain, Spanish politician from Principality of Catalonia, Catalonia, founder and leader of the autonomist party ''Lliga Regionalista''. He was a mini ...
, the leader of the
Regionalist League of Catalonia Regionalist League of Catalonia (, ; 1901–1936) was a right wing political party of Catalonia, Spain. It had a Catalanist, conservative, and monarchic ideology. Notable members of the party were Enric Prat de la Riba, Francesc Cambó, Agust ...
(LRC), who prevented the proposal from passing through parliament and consequently caused the collapse of the government of
Álvaro de Figueroa Álvaro de Figueroa y Alonso-Martínez, 2nd Marquess of Villabrágima (24 December 1893 – 3 November 1959) was a Spanish polo player. He competed at the 1920 Summer Olympics and the 1924 Summer Olympics The 1924 Summer Olympics (), o ...
. But when
import An importer is the receiving country in an export from the sending country. Importation and exportation are the defining financial transactions of international trade. Import is part of the International Trade which involves buying and receivin ...
s were restricted by the subsequent government in 1917, Catalan business owners experienced a decline in their profits. Meanwhile, the working class faced a rising
cost of living The cost of living is the cost of maintaining a certain standard of living for an individual or a household. Changes in the cost of living over time can be measured in a cost-of-living index. Cost of living calculations are also used to compare t ...
and political marginalisation, provoking the trade unions of the
Unión General de Trabajadores The Unión General de Trabajadores (UGT, General Union of Workers) is a major Spanish trade union, historically affiliated with the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE). History The UGT was founded 12 August 1888 by Pablo Iglesias Posse i ...
(UGT) and
Confederación Nacional del Trabajo The (CNT; ) is a Spanish anarcho-syndicalist national trade union center, trade union confederation. Founded in 1910 in Barcelona from groups brought together by the trade union ''Solidaridad Obrera (historical union), Solidaridad Obrera'', ...
(CNT) to call a
general strike A general strike is a strike action in which participants cease all economic activity, such as working, to strengthen the bargaining position of a trade union or achieve a common social or political goal. They are organised by large coalitions ...
. In Barcelona, an was formed by the LRC to constitute a
provisional government A provisional government, also called an interim government, an emergency government, a transitional government or provisional leadership, is a temporary government formed to manage a period of transition, often following state collapse, revoluti ...
for Catalonia, but it dissolved itself in order to support the repression of Catalan workers by the Spanish government. Many Catalan anarchists fled to the French port city of
Marseilles Marseille (; ; see below) is a city in southern France, the prefecture of the department of Bouches-du-Rhône and of the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region. Situated in the Provence region, it is located on the coast of the Mediterranean S ...
, where they clandestinely organised Spanish workers under the banner of the CNT. By January 1919, the CNT had grown so large that half of all workers were affiliated to it; throughout the country, it counted 375,000 members at this time.


Predecessor

In 1919, one of the CNT's most prominent agitators, Manuel Buenacasa, travelled from Barcelona to the
Basque Basque may refer to: * Basques, an ethnic group of Spain and France * Basque language, their language Places * Basque Country (greater region), the homeland of the Basque people with parts in both Spain and France * Basque Country (autonomous co ...
city of Donostia, where he organised migrant workers who were constructing the Kursaal casino. There he met the young anarchist
Buenaventura Durruti José Buenaventura Durruti Dumange (14 July 1896 – 20 November 1936) was a Spanish anarchist revolutionary involved with the CNT and the FAI in the periods before and during the Spanish Civil War of 1936–1939. Durruti played an influe ...
, who he put in touch with other anarchist militants, leading to the formation of '' Los Justicieros'' (). The group was formed in response to an intensifying
social conflict Social conflict is the struggle for agency or power in society. Social conflict occurs when two or more people oppose each other in social interaction, and each exerts social power with reciprocity in an effort to achieve incompatible goals bu ...
; in Barcelona, armed mercenary groups known as '' pistoleros'' hunted down and murdered union leaders, while the police applied to ''
ley de fugas The application of the (Spanish for 'Law for escapes') is a type of execution that consists of simulating or provoking an attempted escape of a prisoner and then killing them for "attempting to escape prison". It is used to justify an otherwise ...
'' (executions via staged escape attempts) to imprisoned workers.
State terrorism State terrorism is terrorism conducted by a state against its own citizens or another state's citizens. It contrasts with '' state-sponsored terrorism'', in which a violent non-state actor conducts an act of terror under sponsorship of a state. ...
drove the CNT underground and many of its members were forced to either fight, flee or face imprisonment. ''Los Justicieros'' initially intended to join the fight in Barcelona, but Buenacasa dissuaded them, telling them they were still needed in Donostia. On 4 August 1920, Catalan anarchists assassinated , the civil governor of Barcelona, who had overseen the execution of 33 union leaders; inspired by the attack, ''Los Justicieros'' decided to attempt to assassinate the
King of Spain The monarchy of Spain or Spanish monarchy () is the constitutional form of government of Spain. It consists of a Hereditary monarchy, hereditary monarch who reigns as the head of state, being the highest office of the country. The Spanish ...
,
Alfonso XIII Alfonso XIII (Spanish language, Spanish: ''Alfonso León Fernando María Jaime Isidro Pascual Antonio de Borbón y Habsburgo-Lorena''; French language, French: ''Alphonse Léon Ferdinand Marie Jacques Isidore Pascal Antoine de Bourbon''; 17 May ...
. Their plot was uncovered by the police and Buenacasa arranged their escape to
Zaragoza Zaragoza (), traditionally known in English as Saragossa ( ), is the capital city of the province of Zaragoza and of the autonomous communities of Spain, autonomous community of Aragon, Spain. It lies by the Ebro river and its tributaries, the ...
. The new governor of Barcelona,
Severiano Martínez Anido Severiano Martínez Anido (21 May 1862 – 24 December 1938) was a Spanish general who served in a number of government posts in Spain during the Primo de Rivera and Francoist dictatorships. He became known for the violent repression of the lab ...
, intensified state terror against the workers' movement. He oversaw a mass campaign of assassinations of union leaders and imprisoned many prominent activists, including the CNT's
Ángel Pestaña Ángel Pestaña Nuñez (1886–1937) was a Spanish Anarcho-syndicalism, anarcho-syndicalist General Secretary of the Confederación Nacional del Trabajo, general secretary of the Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (CNT), founder of the Syndical ...
. Young and inexperienced activists were consequently promoted through the ranks of the CNT. In March 1921, after the entire National Committee of the CNT was arrested, it was replaced by a new committee led by the young
Andreu Nin Andreu Nin i Pérez (; 4 February 1892 – 20 June 1937) was a Spanish politician, trade unionist and translator. He is mainly known for his role in various Spanish left-wing movements of the early 20th century and, later, for his role in the S ...
, a relatively new member of the organisation who sympathised with
Bolshevism Bolshevism (derived from Bolshevik) is a revolutionary socialist current of Soviet Leninist and later Marxist–Leninist political thought and political regime associated with the formation of a rigidly centralized, cohesive and disciplined p ...
. Seeking to establish an Iberian Anarchist Federation, ''Los Justiceros'' dispatched Durruti to Barcelona to contact Catalan anarchist groups. There he was greeted by
Domingo Ascaso Domingo may refer to: People *Domingo (name), a Spanish name and list of people with that name *Domingo (producer) (born 1970), American hip-hop producer *Saint Dominic (1170–1221), Castilian Catholic priest, founder of the Friars popularly cal ...
, who told him of the heavy political repression that the movement was facing: prominent CNT activists, including
Salvador Seguí Salvador Seguí i Rubinat (23 September 1887, in Lleida – 10 March 1923, in Barcelona), known as ''El noi del sucre'' ("the sugar boy" in Catalan) for his habit of eating the sugar cubes served him with his coffee, was a Catalan anarcho-synd ...
,
Evelio Boal Evelio Boal López (Valladolid, 11 May 1884 – Barcelona, 18 June 1921) was a Spanish graphic designer, trade unionist and anarchism, anarchist. He was one of the organizers of the :ca:Congrés de Sants, Congress of Sants of the Confederación N ...
and
Joan Peiró Joan Peiró i Belis (sometimes Juan Peiró: 18 February 1887 – 24 July 1942) was a Catalan anarchist activist, writer, editor of the anarchist newspaper '' Solidaridad Obrera'', two-time General Secretary of the ''Confederación Nacional de ...
had been imprisoned; the ''pistoleros'' effectively operated as a private police force for factory owners and routinely executed union activists; the CNT had also been infiltrated by
police informant An informant (also called an informer or, as a slang term, a "snitch", "rat", "canary", "stool pigeon", "stoolie", "tout" or "grass", among other terms) is a person who provides privileged information, or (usually damaging) information inten ...
s, who had turned in many anarchist activists to the authorities. In this environment, Catalan anarchist groups had closed ranks, distancing themselves from others and concentrating on large actions, including the assassination of prime minister
Eduardo Dato Eduardo Dato e Iradier (12 August 1856 – 8 March 1921) was a Spanish political leader during the Spanish Restoration period. He served three times as Spanish prime minister: from 27 October 1913 to 9 December 1915, from 11 June 1917 to 3 No ...
. Under these conditions, Ascaso informed Durruti that joining a wider anarchist federation was impossible.


Establishment


Founding

Following the defeat of the Spanish colonial forces by
Abd el-Krim Muḥammad bin ‘Abd al-Karīm al-Khaṭṭābī, better known as Abd el-Krim (; 1882 or 1883 – 6 February 1963), was a Moroccan political and military leader and the president of the Republic of the Rif. He and his brother M'Hammad led a ...
at the
Battle of Annual The Battle of Annual was fought on 22 July 1921 at Annual, Morocco, Annual, in northeastern Morocco, between the Spanish Army and Rifians, Rifian Berbers during the Rif War. The Spanish suffered a major military defeat, which is almost always ref ...
in
Spanish Morocco The Spanish protectorate in Morocco was established on 27 November 1912 by a treaty between France and Spain that converted the Spanish sphere of influence in Morocco into a formal protectorate. The Spanish protectorate consisted of a norther ...
, mass protests broke out against the continuation of the
Rif War The Rif War (, , ) was an armed conflict fought from 1921 to 1926 between Spain (joined by France in 1924) and the Berber tribes of the mountainous Rif region of northern Morocco. Led by Abd el-Krim, the Riffians at first inflicted several ...
. Alfonso XIII tasked the
Conservative Conservatism is a cultural, social, and political philosophy and ideology that seeks to promote and preserve traditional institutions, customs, and values. The central tenets of conservatism may vary in relation to the culture and civiliza ...
prime minister
Antonio Maura Antonio Maura Montaner (2 May 1853 – 13 December 1925) was Prime Minister of Spain on five separate occasions. Early life Maura was born in Palma de Mallorca, Palma, on the island of Mallorca, he was the seventh child in a family of t ...
with crushing working class resistance. Maura attempted to win over Catalan business owners by intensifying political repression against the workers' movement, but after he refused to hand the Ministry of Finance over to the LRC, his government collapsed in March 1922. Alfonso XIII hoped that a new government would be able to imitate the
fascist regime Fascism ( ) is a far-right, authoritarian, and ultranationalist political ideology and movement. It is characterized by a dictatorial leader, centralized autocracy, militarism, forcible suppression of opposition, belief in a natural social hie ...
of
Benito Mussolini Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini (29 July 188328 April 1945) was an Italian politician and journalist who, upon assuming office as Prime Minister of Italy, Prime Minister, became the dictator of Fascist Italy from the March on Rome in 1922 un ...
, but instead, the government of José Sánchez-Guerra restored
constitutional rights A constitutional right can be a prerogative or a duty, a power or a restraint of power, recognized and established by a sovereign state or union of states. Constitutional rights may be expressly stipulated in a national constitution, or they may ...
on 22 April 1922. Catalan trade unions immediately resumed their public activities, while many of their political prisoners were released. The CNT managed to recover, with its ranks even increasing in some cases. The Wood Workers' Union called an assembly at Barcelona's Victoria Theatre, which was opened by the anarchist journalist reading out the names of the 107 activists who had been murdered by the ''pistoleros''. The assembly nominated a new union committee and elected the Aragonese carpenter
Gregorio Jover Gregorio Jover Cortés (Teruel, 25 October 1891 – Mexico, 22 March 1964) was an Aragonese anarcho-syndicalist and a member of the CNT during the first third of the 20th century. During the Spanish Civil War he was commander of the Ascaso Co ...
as representative of the Barcelona Local Federation of the CNT. Ascaso wrote a letter to his brother,
Francisco Francisco is the Spanish and Portuguese form of the masculine given name ''Franciscus''. Meaning of the name Francisco In Spanish, people with the name Francisco are sometimes nicknamed "Paco (name), Paco". Francis of Assisi, San Francisco de A ...
, who had recently been released from prison. He warned that the ''pistoleros'' had reorganised around yellow syndicalism, forming pro-corporate trade unions, and worried that a new offensive against the working class was being prepared by employers. In response to the letter, in August 1922, five members of ''Los Justicieros'' (Buenaventura Durruti, Francisco Ascaso,
Rafael Torres Escartín Rafael Liberato Torres Escartín (20 December 1901 – 1939) was a Spanish anarchist militant. Biography The son of Pedro Torres Marco and Orencia Escartín Villacampa, Rafael was born in the Bailo barracks of Guardia Civil, where his father ...
, Gregorio Suberviola and Marcelino del Campo) moved to Barcelona. There they reorganised into a new group, which they called ''Crisol'' (). By the time the ''Crisol'' group arrived in Barcelona, a general strike had been called in response to an assassination attempt against Pestaña. Catalan intellectuals denounced the continuation of attacks by the ''pistoleros'', while socialist deputy
Indalecio Prieto Indalecio Prieto Tuero (30 April 1883 – 11 February 1962) was a Spanish politician, a minister and one of the leading figures of the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE) in the years before and during the Second Spanish Republic. Less radi ...
demanded the resignation of Martínez Anido, and Catalan nationalists led by
Francesc Macià Francesc Macià i Llussà (; 21 September 1859 – 25 December 1933) was a Catalan politician who served as the 122nd president of the Generalitat of Catalonia, and formerly an officer in the Spanish Army. Politically, Macià evolved from an ...
called for the independence of Catalonia. In response, the employers and clergy reorganised ''pistolerismo'' into the
Sindicatos Libres The ''Sindicatos Libres'' ( Spanish for "Free Trade Unions"; ) was a Spanish company union born in Barcelona, Catalonia. It was established by Carlist workers, and remained active during the early interwar period (the late stages of Restoration S ...
, a
company union A company or "yellow" union is a worker organization which is dominated or unduly influenced by an employer and is therefore not an independent trade union. Company unions are contrary to international labour law (see ILO Convention 98, Article ...
which they forced their workers to join by firing any CNT affiliates. Members of ''Crisol'' formed an alliance with activists of the CNT Woodworkers' Union, with whom they established a new
affinity group An affinity group is a group formed around a shared interest or common goal, to which individuals formally or informally belong. Affinity groups are generally precluded from being under the aegis of any governmental agency, and their purposes ...
, ''Los Solidarios'', in October 1922. They planned to confront the ''pistoleros'' and support the CNT, with the eventual goal of establishing an Iberian Anarchist Federation, which they saw as a necessary precondition for
social revolution Social revolutions are sudden changes in the structure and nature of society. These revolutions are usually recognized as having transformed society, economy, culture, philosophy, and technology along with but more than just the political system ...
. According to Ricardo Sanz, ''Los Solidarios'' functioned as a
leaderless Leaderless resistance, or phantom cell structure, is a social resistance strategy in which small, independent groups ( covert cells), or individuals (a solo cell is called a " lone wolf"), challenge an established institution such as a law, econ ...
, non-hierarchical organisation. Historian
Murray Bookchin Murray Bookchin (; January 14, 1921 – July 30, 2006) was an American social theorist, author, orator, historian, and political philosopher. Influenced by G. W. F. Hegel, Karl Marx, and Peter Kropotkin, he was a pioneer in the environmental ...
depicted them as having more closely resembled a
community A community is a social unit (a group of people) with a shared socially-significant characteristic, such as place, set of norms, culture, religion, values, customs, or identity. Communities may share a sense of place situated in a given g ...
than a structured
political organisation A political organization is any organization that involves itself in the political process, including political parties, non-governmental organizations, and special interest advocacy groups. Political organizations are those engaged in politic ...
. To propagate their ideas, they released a weekly newspaper titled ''Crisol''. The paper was edited by Francisco Ascaso, who received contributions from
Felipe Alaiz Felipe is the Spanish variant of the name Philip, which derives from the Greek adjective ''Philippos'' "friend of horses". Felipe is also widely used in Portuguese-speaking Brazil alongside Filipe, the form commonly used in Portugal. Noteworthy ...
,
Obdulio Barthe Obdulio Barthe (1903–1981) was a Paraguayan Communist and syndicalist politician. In 1931, he was one of the leaders in the Encarnación Commune. Biography Obdulio Barthe was born in 1903, the son of Domingo Barthe. His father was a French ...
, Liberto Callejas and Torres Tribo. ''Crisol'' frequently cited the works of the Russian anarchist philosopher
Mikhail Bakunin Mikhail Alexandrovich Bakunin. Sometimes anglicized to Michael Bakunin. ( ; – 1 July 1876) was a Russian revolutionary anarchist. He is among the most influential figures of anarchism and a major figure in the revolutionary socialist, s ...
; the group followed Bakunin's tactic of forming a
clandestine cell system A clandestine cell system is a method for organizing a group of people, such as resistance fighters, spies, mercenaries, organized crime members, or terrorists, to make it harder for police, military or other hostile groups to catch them. In ...
within a large trade union organisation and believed his strategy could be applied in the struggle against a
military dictatorship A military dictatorship, or a military regime, is a type of dictatorship in which Power (social and political), power is held by one or more military officers. Military dictatorships are led by either a single military dictator, known as a Polit ...
, which they believed would soon be established in Spain. Following the model of the
Russian Revolution The Russian Revolution was a period of Political revolution (Trotskyism), political and social revolution, social change in Russian Empire, Russia, starting in 1917. This period saw Russia Dissolution of the Russian Empire, abolish its mona ...
and the example of the
Bolsheviks The Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, were a radical Faction (political), faction of the Marxist Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP) which split with the Mensheviks at the 2nd Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party, ...
, ''Crisol'' believed that they could establish a dictatorship of the proletariat through the creation of revolutionary committees and
workers' council A workers' council, also called labour council, is a type of council in a workplace or a locality made up of workers or of temporary and instantly revocable delegates elected by the workers in a locality's workplaces. In such a system of polit ...
s, which would be capable of uniting
skilled A skill is the learned or innate ability to act with determined results with good execution often within a given amount of time, energy, or both. Skills can often be divided into domain-general and domain-specific skills. Some examples of gene ...
and unskilled workers behind a common cause. ''Crisol'' also attacked King Alfonso XIII, who the paper called a "felon king" (), due to his continued prosecution of the Rif War.


Barcelona Conference

With Sánchez-Guerra having solidified constitutional order in Catalonia, ''Los Solidarios'' called a conference of Catalan anarchist groups. Fifty delegates attended the conference, including Ángel Pestaña, the former editor of '' Solidaridad Obrera'' who had recently been released from prison. Other anarchist activists, including ,
Juan Manuel Molina Juan Manuel Molina Morote (born March 15, 1979, in Cieza, Murcia) is a male former race walker from Spain. He represented Spain at the Olympics in 2004 and 2008. His foremost achievement was a bronze medal in the 20 km walk event at the 20 ...
and
Joan Montseny Joan Montseny i Carret (1864–1942), who also wrote under the pseudonym Federico Urales, was a Catalan anarchist activist and journalist from Spain. Early life and career Joan Montseny was born in Reus, Spain, in 1864. He was originally ...
, were also among the attendees. Held in December 1922, the conference recognised ''Los Solidarios'' as the leading action group in the Catalan capital. They adopted a motto which encapsulated their desire for
collective action Collective action refers to action taken together Advocacy group, by a group of people whose goal is to enhance their condition and achieve a common objective. It is a term that has formulations and theories in many areas of the social sciences ...
, "to act for all" (). ''Los Solidarios'' warned the conference that, despite the re-established peace, the "
bourgeoisie The bourgeoisie ( , ) are a class of business owners, merchants and wealthy people, in general, which emerged in the Late Middle Ages, originally as a "middle class" between the peasantry and aristocracy. They are traditionally contrasted wi ...
" would continue their attacks against the working classes. They believed that the
Spanish Army The Spanish Army () is the terrestrial army of the Spanish Armed Forces responsible for land-based military operations. It is one of the oldest Standing army, active armies – dating back to the late 15th century. The Spanish Army has existed ...
, with the support of the clergy and landowning aristocracy, would attempt to establish a military dictatorship; they thus called on anarchist groups to accelerate their revolutionary activities. They also called for anarchists to revise their anti-militarist strategies, which previously involved
conscription evasion Conscription evasion or draft evasion (American English) is any successful attempt to elude a government-imposed obligation to serve in the military forces of one's nation. Sometimes draft evasion involves refusing to comply with the military dra ...
, and to instead join the Spanish Army. Within the army, they were directed to form Anti-militarist Committees, which would spread anarchist ideas among the soldiers and coordinate with other anarchist groups. The Conference culminated with the establishment of a Liaison Commission, the nucleus for what would become the
Iberian Anarchist Federation The Iberian Anarchist Federation (, FAI) is a Spanish anarchist organization. Due to its close relation with the Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (CNT) anarcho-syndicalist union, it is often abbreviated as CNT-FAI. The FAI publishes the pe ...
(FAI). The composition of the commission changed over time, with Molina becoming its provisional secretary, and Manuel Molet and Jeremias Roig also serving. ''Los Solidarios'' members formed the centre of the commission: Francisco Ascaso was appointed as
general secretary Secretary is a title often used in organizations to indicate a person having a certain amount of authority, Power (social and political), power, or importance in the organization. Secretaries announce important events and communicate to the org ...
, a position from which he built alliances with other regional anarchist groups; Durruti was tasked with acquiring weapons and explosives; and
Aurelio Fernández Sánchez Aurelio Fernández Sánchez (Asturias, 1897 - Mexico, 1974) was an Asturians, Asturian anarchist. Biography Aurelio Fernández Sánchez joined the National Confederation of Labor ( CNT) in his youth. He participated in the Spanish general strike ...
was dispatched to join the army, within which he won over several
non-commissioned officer A non-commissioned officer (NCO) is an enlisted rank, enlisted leader, petty officer, or in some cases warrant officer, who does not hold a Commission (document), commission. Non-commissioned officers usually earn their position of authority b ...
s and established a number of Anti-militarist Committees. Pestaña himself was expelled from the Commission due to his opposition to armed insurrection.


Assassination campaign


Initiation

As their initial attempts to coordinate workers' and soldiers' councils stalled, ''Los Solidarios'' pivoted towards a different tactic:
assassination Assassination is the willful killing, by a sudden, secret, or planned attack, of a personespecially if prominent or important. It may be prompted by political, ideological, religious, financial, or military motives. Assassinations are orde ...
. One of the first plans of ''Los Solidarios'' had been to assassinate Martínez Anido and police chief , but they halted preparations after discovering that the two had planned to stage a fake assassination attempt against themselves, as pretext for continuing political repression. The two officials' ultimate objective had been to carry out a
massacre A massacre is an event of killing people who are not engaged in hostilities or are defenseless. It is generally used to describe a targeted killing of civilians Glossary of French words and expressions in English#En masse, en masse by an armed ...
against
syndicalists Syndicalism is a labour movement within society that, through industrial unionism, seeks to unionize workers according to industry and advance their demands through strikes and other forms of direct action, with the eventual goal of gaining ...
on Saint Bartholemew's Day. Martínez Anido stationed ''pistoleros'' outside of a hospital, where Pestaña was recovering from gunshot wounds from a prior assassination attempt, with orders to kill him after he was discharged. The plot was publicised by the Catalan press, preventing it from going ahead. On 24 October 1922, after Prime Minister Sánchez-Guerra was informed of the plot, he dismissed the two of them from their positions. Governorship of the
province of Barcelona Barcelona (; ) is a province of eastern Spain, in the center of the autonomous community of Catalonia. The province is bordered by the provinces of Tarragona, Lleida, and Girona, and by the Mediterranean Sea. Its area is .labour law Labour laws (also spelled as labor laws), labour code or employment laws are those that mediate the relationship between workers, employing entities, trade unions, and the government. Collective labour law relates to the tripartite relationship be ...
s which legalised individual trade unions and permitted
collective bargaining Collective bargaining is a process of negotiation between employers and a group of employees aimed at agreements to regulate working salaries, working conditions, benefits, and other aspects of workers' compensation and labour rights, rights for ...
under government supervision. The new law also prohibited national trade union centers and the adoption of a political ideology by trade unions, which restrained the activities of the CNT. On 10 March 1923, CNT General Secretary Salvador Seguí was murdered by ''pistoleros''. Many anarchists claimed the assassination to have been carried out under the orders of the Catalan
employers' federation An employers' organization or employers' association is a collective organization of manufacturers, retailers, or other employers of wage labor. Employers' organizations seek to coordinate the behavior of their member companies in matters of mutua ...
; while sensationalist newspapers spread rumours that the attack had been carried out by anarchists, who had grown frustrated with the
moderate Moderate is an ideological category which entails centrist views on a liberal-conservative spectrum. It may also designate a rejection of radical or extreme views, especially in regard to politics and religion. Political position Canad ...
leadership of the CNT. ''Los Solidarios'' themselves claimed that the assassination had been carried out by agents of the monarchy, as an attempt to cover up the role of King Alfonso XIII in the defeat at Annual. After the CNT organised a
general strike A general strike is a strike action in which participants cease all economic activity, such as working, to strengthen the bargaining position of a trade union or achieve a common social or political goal. They are organised by large coalitions ...
in Seguí's honour on 13 March 1923, the police arrested more than 900 people. ''Los Solidarios'' responded by putting together a list of
reactionaries In politics, a reactionary is a person who favors a return to a previous state of society which they believe possessed positive characteristics absent from contemporary.''The New Fontana Dictionary of Modern Thought'' Third Edition, (1999) p. 729. ...
who they held responsible for state terrorism against anarchists, targeting them for assassination. Among the list were Martínez Anido and Arlegui, as well as former interior ministers and
Gabino Bugallal Gabino is a masculine surname which may refer to: * Gabino Amparán (born 1968), Mexican football manager * Gabino Apolonio (born 1971), Mexican former long-distance runner * Gabino Arregui (1914–1991), Argentine footballer * Gabino Barreda (18 ...
, the governor of
Biscay Biscay ( ; ; ), is a province of the Basque Country (autonomous community), Basque Autonomous Community, heir of the ancient Lordship of Biscay, lying on the south shore of the Bay of Biscay, eponymous bay. The capital and largest city is Bilb ...
Fernando González Regueral, and the
Archbishop of Zaragoza The Archdiocese of Saragossa (; ) is a Latin diocese of the Catholic Church located in north-eastern Spain, in the province of Zaragoza (Saragossa in English), part of the autonomous community of Aragón. The archdiocese heads the ecclesiastical ...
Juan Soldevila ''Juan'' is a given name, the Spanish and Manx versions of ''John''. The name is of Hebrew origin and has the meaning "God has been gracious." It is very common in Spain and in other Spanish-speaking countries around the world and in the Philippi ...
. One group of anarchists carried out an attack against Josep Pons, the vice-president of the employers' federation. Other anarchist groups launched an attack against the Hunters' Circle, a local headquarters of ''pistoleros'', and gunned down many of its members. Radicalised workers also fired on police that entered their neighbourhoods. This prompted a number of ''pistoleros'' to flee the city, which left business owners in need of police protection. As members of ''Los Solidarios'' received no salaries and spent most of their money purchasing weapons and explosives, the group needed money to sustain themselves and their
insurgency An insurgency is a violent, armed rebellion by small, lightly armed bands who practice guerrilla warfare against a larger authority. The key descriptive feature of insurgency is its asymmetric warfare, asymmetric nature: small irregular forces ...
. They decided to rob a
cash-in-transit Cash-in-transit (CIT) or cash/valuables-in-transit (CVIT) is the physical transfer of banknotes, coins, credit cards and items of value from one location to another. The locations include cash centers and bank branches, ATM points, bureaux de c ...
operation of the
City Council of Barcelona The City Council of Barcelona (Catalan language, Catalan: ''Ajuntament de Barcelona''; Spanish language, Spanish: ''Ayuntamiento de Barcelona'') is the top-tier administrative and governing body of the Barcelona, municipality of Barcelona, Catal ...
, despite the council employees being under police protection. The group intercepted the transfer at the intersection of La Rambla and , disarmed the police and escaped with 100,000 pesetas. Durruti took some of the money to Madrid and gave it to the legal defense fund for and , who had been charged with murdering Eduardo Dato. ''Los Solidarios'' discovered that the ''pistolero'' leader Ramón Laguía, who they suspected of murdering Salvador Seguí, was hiding out in
Manresa Manresa () is the capital of Bages county, located in the central region of Catalonia, Spain. Crossed by the river Cardener, it is an industrial area with textile, metallurgical, and glass industries. The houses of Manresa are arranged aro ...
. Francisco Ascaso and Joan Garcia Oliver went there and located him at a local bar, where he was playing cards with three other ''pistoleros''. ''Los Solidarios'' shot Laguía and fled the scene. In revenge for the attack, , the leader of the ''Sindicatos Libres'', ordered the murder of Ascaso, Garcia Oliver and Durruti. While attempting to evade the ''pistoleros'', ''Los Solidarios'' pressed forward with their own assassination plans: Ascaso, Torres Escartín and Fernández Sánchez were dispatched to Donostia to assassinate Martínez Anido; and Suberviola and Antonio Rodríguez went to León to assassinate Fernando González Regueral. They later collaborated with the Catalan nationalist
Miquel Badia Miquel Badia i Capell (1906–1936) was a prominent figure of radical Catalan separatism during the days of the Second Spanish Republic, member of Estat Català and the JERC, Chief of Public Order of the Generalitat of Catalonia. He became kno ...
on a plot to assassinate Alfonso XIII by bombing the king's train, but the attempt was unsuccessful.


Attempt against Martínez Anido

Following his dismissal, Martínez Anido had gone into hiding in Donostia, but he was tracked down by members of ''Los Solidarios'', who went to the city armed with guns and explosives. He kept a regular itinerary, going on daily walks between the neighbourhoods of and , along the
Beach of La Concha The Beach of La Concha ( ; , "cone shell beach") is a crescent shaped urban seaboard of the city of San Sebastián located at the Bay of La Concha in the Basque Country, in northern Spain. Its name ''“Concha”'' is given upon its remarkably r ...
, before going to the Gran Kursaal. ''Los Solidarios'' knew this and observed the road from a café, waiting to spot Martínez Anido; Torres Escartín was surprised to come face-to-face with him at the cafe. Lamenting that they hadn't brought their weapons with them and worried that Martínez Anido was now aware of their presence, Ascaso proposed that they take their guns and shoot him wherever they saw him. They searched for him at all the places he usually visited, but found him nowhere. Martínez Anido had already left Barcelona for the Galician city of
A Coruña A Coruña (; ; also informally called just Coruña; historical English: Corunna or The Groyne) is a city and municipality in Galicia, Spain. It is Galicia's second largest city, behind Vigo. The city is the provincial capital of the province ...
, so the three followed him there. Upon arrival, Ascaso and Fernández Sánchez spoke to dockworkers about shipping weapons to Barcelona, while Torres Escartín contacted the local CNT branch. Before they could reunite, Ascaso and Fernández were arrested under suspicion of
drug trafficking A drug is any chemical substance other than a nutrient or an essential dietary ingredient, which, when administered to a living organism, produces a biological effect. Consumption of drugs can be via inhalation, injection, smoking, ingestion, ...
. The two convinced the police that they were seeking to emigrate to
Latin America Latin America is the cultural region of the Americas where Romance languages are predominantly spoken, primarily Spanish language, Spanish and Portuguese language, Portuguese. Latin America is defined according to cultural identity, not geogr ...
and, after they were released, they immediately left Galicia, abandoning their mission. Martínez Anido later arrived at the police station to question the two men, but when he discovered that the "dangerous anarchists following in his footsteps to kill him" had been released, he fired the local police captain. When Ascaso and Fernández returned to Barcelona, they found out that Durruti had been arrested in Madrid. Ascaso enlisted the Catalan lawyer Joan Rusiñol to help Durruti escape. Ascaso, Rusiñol, and Torres Escartín went to Donostia to defend Durruti. Durruti had been accused of robbing the Basque trader Ramón Mendizábal, but at Durruti's trial, Mendizábal proclaimed Durruti to have been innocent of the crime. With his participation in the plotted assassination of the King also in doubt, Durruti was acquitted of the charges of armed robbery and attempted regicide, although he would remain in prison for desertion. Martínez Anido would remain in hiding until the end of the period of ''pistolerismo'' later that year.


Assassination of Fernando González Regueral

In Durruti's home city of León, in May 1923, the local
patronal festival A patronal feast or patronal festival (; ; ; ; ) is a yearly celebration dedicated – in countries influenced by Christianity – to the 'heavenly advocate' or 'patron' of the location holding the festival, who is a saint or virgin. The day of t ...
was underway. On 17 May, the city's elites, as well as former Bilbao governor Fernando González Regueral, attended a performance of the theatre play '. Regueral and his police escort left the theatre early, and as he walked down the stairs, he was shot by Suberviola and Rodríguez, who had been waiting for him. In the confusion and panic caused by the assassination, the two ''Solidarios'' disappeared into the crowd; the police never saw who fired the shots. The following day's newspapers erroneously claimed the attack to be the work of a local anarchist group. The police arrested the head of the CNT's León branch, Vicente Tejerina, and Durruti's brother Santiago. They also attempted to arrest Durruti's father in his sickbed, but they were prevented by his family and neighbours. By the following day, the arrested men were released due to a lack of evidence against them. The police never caught Suberviola or Rodríguez.


Assassination of Juan Soldevila

Although they had hoped to wait for Durruti's release, the circumstances prompted Ascaso and Torres Escartín to leave Donostia for Zaragoza. They stayed there in a small house with the old anarchist feminist
Teresa Claramunt Teresa Claramunt i Creus (1862–1931) was a Catalan anarcho-syndicalist. Claramunt lived in a time marked by a labour movement in formation and by rising anarchist sentiments. A pioneer of anarcha-feminism, she was one of the first to propose ...
, who admonished them for their violent actions. They defended their actions due to the climate of violence brought to the city by the ''pistoleros''. They held Archbishop Juan Soldevila responsible for the violence, as he had given the church's protection to local ''pistoleros'', and aimed to eliminate him. On 4 June 1923, Soldevila and his nephew Luis Latre Jorro left the archbishop's palace in a black car and headed towards their country estate. When they reached the property, the driver stopped the car and waited for the gates to be opened. Two men standing by the gates drew pistols and opened fire on the car, killing Soldevila and wounding his nephew and driver, before disappearing. Alfonso XIII immediately ordered the Archbishopric of Zaragoza and his own staff to investigate the attack. The ''
Heraldo de Aragón ''Heraldo de Aragón'' is a regional daily newspaper published in Zaragoza, Spain. The paper has been in circulation since 1895. History and profile ''Heraldo de Aragón'' was first published on 20 September 1895. The owner is Heraldo de Aragó ...
'' published a photograph of Soldevila's body on its front page and wrote three pages on the police investigation. While tracing the assassins' path of escape, police found an unloaded pistol with the mark of , a Basque weapons manufacturer based in
Gernika Guernica (, ), officially Gernika () in Basque, is a town in the province of Biscay, in the Autonomous Community of the Basque Country, Spain. The town of Guernica is one part (along with neighbouring Lumo) of the municipality of Gernika-Lumo ...
. The escape route ended at the Delicias neighbourhood of Zaragoza, but nobody there could provide information about the assassins. Under pressure from Conservative Party leader
Juan de la Cierva Juan de la Cierva y Codorníu, 1st Count of la Cierva (; 21 September 1895 – 9 December 1936), was a Spanish civil engineer, pilot and a self-taught aeronautical engineer. His most famous accomplishment was the invention in 1920 of a rotorcr ...
and Interior Minister , the local administration in Zaragoza ordered a series of arbitrary arrests against local anarchists and the labour movement. But when Zaragoza CNT leader Victoriano Gracia warned that the government would bear responsibility "if even one innocent worker is arrested", the governor ordered police to ensure any arrests were based on hard evidence and ordered the release of people that had been arbitrarily detained. On 28 June, the Spanish government intervened, ordering the arrest of Ángel Pestaña and other prominent anarcho-syndicalists, who they charged with terrorism. Ascaso was also arrested by police and charged with the murder of Soldevila, despite him having an
alibi An alibi (, from the Latin, '' alibī'', meaning "somewhere else") is a statement by a person under suspicion in a crime that they were in a different place when the offence was committed. During a police investigation, all suspects are usually a ...
, with witnesses confirming that he had visited prisoners at the time of the assassination. Newspapers quickly reported that Ascaso, a member of Durruti's "gang", was the assassin. The government and the Catholic Church pushed for further arrests of anarchists, with police even taking a woman sick with tuberculosis as hostage to force her son
Esteban Euterio Salamero Bernard Esteban () is a spanish people, Spanish male given name, derived from Greek Στέφανος (Stéphanos) and related to the English names Steven and Stephen. Although in its original pronunciation the accent is paroxytone, on the penultimate syllab ...
to turn himself in. In the end, Ascaso, Torres Escartín, Salamero and
Juliana López Juliana López Mainar (1886–1971) was an Aragonese anarchist militant. Biography Juliana López Mainar was born in the Aragonese capital of Zaragoza. She was a cook by trade. López ran a guest house on Calle Arnaldo Alcober, in the neighbo ...
were charged with the murder of Soldevila.


Coup of 1923

When Durruti was finally released from prison, he returned to Barcelona, where he found the CNT had split into three tendencies:
revolutionaries A revolutionary is a person who either participates in, or advocates for, a revolution. The term ''revolutionary'' can also be used as an adjective to describe something producing a major and sudden impact on society. Definition The term—bot ...
, who wanted to make armed robbery a CNT strategy;
moderates Moderate is an ideological category which entails Centrism, centrist views on a liberal-conservative spectrum. It may also designate a rejection of radical politics, radical or extremism, extreme views, especially in regard to politics and religi ...
, led by Ángel Pestaña, who denounced
illegalism Illegalism is a tendency of anarchism that developed primarily in France, Italy, Belgium and Switzerland during the late 1890s and early 1900s as an outgrowth of individualist anarchism. Illegalists embrace criminality either openly or secret ...
; and Bolsheviks, led by Andreu Nin and
Joaquim Maurín Joaquim is the Portuguese and Catalan version of Joachim and may refer to: * Agnes Joaquim (born Ashkhen Hovakimian, 1854–1899), Singaporean Armenian who bred Singapore's first hybridised orchid hybrid, Vanda 'Miss Joaquim' * Alberto Joaqui ...
, who wanted to seize control of the CNT. Meanwhile, in national politics, left-wing political parties were collapsing to internal divisions, while business owners and the clergy were funnelling more support towards the Spanish Army. At this time,
Liberal Liberal or liberalism may refer to: Politics * Generally, a supporter of the political philosophy liberalism. Liberals may be politically left or right but tend to be centrist. * An adherent of a Liberal Party (See also Liberal parties by country ...
prime minister
Manuel García Prieto Manuel may refer to: People * Manuel (name), a given name and surname * Manuel (''Fawlty Towers''), a fictional character from the sitcom ''Fawlty Towers'' * Manuel I Komnenos, emperor of the Byzantine Empire * Manuel I of Portugal, king of Po ...
received documents outlining Alfonso XIII's responsibility for the military disaster at Annual, which would cause a political scandal once they were made public. The government soon collapsed into infighting between
Africanists African studies is the study of Africa, especially the continent's cultures and societies (as opposed to its geology, geography, zoology, etc.). The field includes the study of Africa's history (pre-colonial, colonial, post-colonial), demograph ...
, led by
Niceto Alcalá-Zamora Niceto Alcalá-Zamora y Torres (6 July 1877 – 18 February 1949) was a Spanish lawyer and politician who served, briefly, as the first prime minister of the Second Spanish Republic, and then—from 1931 to 1936—as its president. Early life ...
, and their anti-war opponents, led by . The latter's efforts to bring an end to the war were vetoed by Zamora, forcing Silvela to resign as Navy Minister. His successor appointed Martínez Anido as commander in
Melilla Melilla (, ; ) is an autonomous city of Spain on the North African coast. It lies on the eastern side of the Cape Three Forks, bordering Morocco and facing the Mediterranean Sea. It has an area of . It was part of the Province of Málaga un ...
. The internal conflicts in the CNT and the government were the main topic of discussion for ''Los Solidarios'' in Barcelona. One of their members who had infiltrated the military, Captain Alejandro Sancho, reported of an imminent
military coup A military, also known collectively as armed forces, is a heavily armed, highly organized force primarily intended for warfare. Militaries are typically authorized and maintained by a sovereign state, with their members identifiable by a d ...
being planned by General
Miguel Primo de Rivera Miguel Primo de Rivera y Orbaneja, 2nd Marquis of Estella, Grandee, GE (8 January 1870 – 16 March 1930), was a Spanish dictator and military officer who ruled as prime minister of Spain from 1923 to 1930 during the last years of the Resto ...
. Sancho said that it had become difficult for the group's Anti-militarist Committees to organise, due to an increase in surveillance. He thought it unclear how rank-and-file soldiers would respond to a coup, but hoped that they might choose to fraternise with workers. ''Los Solidarios'' responded to the reports of an imminent coup by proposing a revolutionary general strike, which would require the revival of repressed trade unions and money for weaponry. Durruti and Torres Escartín resolved to rob the
Bank of Spain The Bank of Spain (, ) is the national central bank for Spain within the Eurosystem. It was the Spanish central bank from 1874 to 1998, issuing the peseta. Since 2014, it has also been Spain's national competent authority within European Banki ...
in the Asturian city of Xixón. On their way to Asturias, they briefly stopped in Zaragoza, where Torres Escartín had been charged for the murder of Soldevila. There they became involved in a plan to break Ascaso and other detainees out of prison. Durruti and Torres Escartín offered money from the planned robbery to bribe the prison guards. They also found out that, on 13 June, the anarchist activists Inocencio Pina, Luis Muñoz and Antonio Mur had been arrested after a shootout with the police, under the command of . The two then travelled to Bilbao, where they linked up with an engineer who said he could procure thousands of rifles if they had the money. By the time two ''Solidarios'' arrived in Xixón, Primo de Rivera had begun preparations for the coup and subsequent repression of anarcho-syndicalism. At this time, only the anarchist movement was planning to resist the coup; Garcia Oliver met with the CNT national committee to make plans for a revolutionary general strike, but Pestaña informed him that repression and internal divisions had already devastated the organisation, leaving it unable to meet the needs of a social revolution. Pestaña also said that, without any other organisations with which they could form an alliance against the coup, the CNT would be alone in opposing the dictatorship. ''Los Solidarios'' redoubled their efforts to organise against the coming coup. By August 1923, Durruti and Torres Escartín were beginning preparations for the robbery. They urgently requested other ''Solidarios'' to join them, as 1,000 rifles had already been ordered from the arms manufacturer in Eibar. On 1 September 1923, members of ''Solidarios'' carried out an armed robbery of the Xixón bank branch. They seized money from the bank vault and shot the bank manager Luis Azcárate Alvarez after a struggle, wounding him in the neck. They made off with more than half a million pesetas in cash, stolen from the payroll of the business group
Duro Felguera Duro Felguera, SA () is an international business group with headquarters in the Science and Technology Park of Gijón, Asturias Asturias (; ; ) officially the Principality of Asturias, is an autonomous communities of Spain, autonomous commu ...
. They left the bank and escaped in a
getaway car A crime scene getaway is the act of departing from the location where one has committed a crime. It is an act that the offender(s) may or may not have planned in detail, resulting in a variety of outcomes. A :crime scene is the "location of a c ...
, pursued by the Civil Guard, who found and arrested the driver outside of the city. The driver told them that the robbers had hired him for an trip from
Uviéu Oviedo () or Uviéu (Asturian language, Asturian: ) is the capital city of the Principality of Asturias in northern Spain and the administrative and commercial centre of the region. It is also the name of the municipality that contains th ...
to Xixón and hijacked his car. After returning his car to him, they went to the train station at Llanera. The Civil Guard cordoned off the whole province in the search for the robbers. In an interview with journalists, Rosales Martel estimated that more than 700,000 pesetas had been stolen, although the ''Solidarios'' themselves only made off with 650,000, implying they had left a cut behind for their victims. The Xixón robbery was one of the largest "expropriations" carried out by anarchists during this period. Instead of going to Llanera as planned, the ''Solidarios'' split up:
Miguel García Vivancos Miguel García Vivancos (19 April 1895 in Mazarrón, Region of Murcia – 23 January 1972 in Córdoba) was a Spanish Naïve painter and anarchist. He was a member of the National Confederation of Labor (, CNT), during the Spanish Civil W ...
and Fernández Sánchez went over the mountains to Bilbao in order to purchase the rifles, slipping through the Civil Guard security cordon; Durruti, Brau, Torres Escartín and Suberviola hid out in a mountainside cabin. On 3 September, Civil Guards appeared outside their cabin, leading to a shootout. The four split up into two pairs, with Brau and Torres Escartín fleeling one way, while Durruti and Suberviola left in another direction. Brau and Torres Escartín ended up in an hours-long gun battle with the Civil Guards. When they had almost ran out of ammunition, Brau attempted to rush the police lines and seize an officer's
Mauser Mauser, originally the Königlich Württembergische Gewehrfabrik, was a German arms manufacturer. Their line of bolt-action rifles and semi-automatic pistols was produced beginning in the 1870s for the German armed forces. In the late 19th and ...
; Brau was shot and killed. Torres Escartín was knocked out with a rifle butt and taken to the prison in Uviéu, where he was tortured. As Torres Escartín was wanted for the murder of Archbishop Soldevila, authorities in Zaragoza requested his transfer there. Before the transfer took place, he and other prisoners organised a prison break. After jumping over the prison wall, he twisted his ankle, so he told his comrades to escape without him. He collapsed in front of a church and the priest alerted the Civil Guard, who brought him back to the prison. By the time that the ''Solidarios'' had purchased their rifles, the beginnings of the military coup were already underway. Alfonso XIII and Primo de Rivera brought forward the date for the coup, in order to prevent the presentation of documents outlining the king's responsibility for the Annual disaster to the
Congress of Deputies The Congress of Deputies () is the lower house of the , Spain's legislative branch, the upper house being the Senate of Spain, Senate. The Congress meets in the Palacio de las Cortes, Madrid, Palace of the Parliament () in Madrid. Congress has ...
. On 13 September 1923, Primo de Rivera called the press to his office and presented them with a
manifesto A manifesto is a written declaration of the intentions, motives, or views of the issuer, be it an individual, group, political party, or government. A manifesto can accept a previously published opinion or public consensus, but many prominent ...
, in which he announced the creation of a
military junta A military junta () is a system of government led by a committee of military leaders. The term ''Junta (governing body), junta'' means "meeting" or "committee" and originated in the Junta (Peninsular War), national and local junta organized by t ...
to take control of the country. Political parties were eliminated, soldiers occupied Congress and the Picasso files disappeared. The CNT called on the working class to resist the coup with a general strike, but no popular rebellion would manifest. The
Spanish Socialist Workers' Party The Spanish Socialist Workers' Party ( , PSOE ) is a Social democracy, social democratic Updated as required.The PSOE is described as a social-democratic party by numerous sources: * * * * List of political parties in Spain, political party ...
(PSOE) and UGT rejected calls for an uprising and recognised the new dictatorship. When Alfonso XIII arrived in Madrid, he dismissed García Prieto's government and handed power to Primo de Rivera, who abolished the
constitution A constitution is the aggregate of fundamental principles or established precedents that constitute the legal basis of a polity, organization or other type of entity, and commonly determines how that entity is to be governed. When these pri ...
. On 23 September, the CNT was banned by the new dictatorship.


Clandestinity and exile

With the establishment of the dictatorship, the CNT was again driven underground, making illegalism its driving theory and practice. The ''Solidarios'' also stepped up their
operational security Operations security (OPSEC) is a process that identifies critical information to determine whether friendly actions can be observed by enemy intelligence, determines if information obtained by adversaries could be interpreted to be useful to th ...
, while making preparations to break Ascaso and Torres Escartín out of prison. They sent some of their members to
France France, officially the French Republic, is a country located primarily in Western Europe. Overseas France, Its overseas regions and territories include French Guiana in South America, Saint Pierre and Miquelon in the Atlantic Ocean#North Atlan ...
, where they were to provide support to a new Revolutionary Committee, established in Barcelona to fight the dictatorship. By October 1923, the ''Solidarios'' had purchased 1,000 rifles, 200,000 bullets, and 12 machine guns. The weapons and ammunition was shipped to the
port of Barcelona The Port of Barcelona (, ; ) is a major port in Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain. Its are divided into three zones: Port Vell (the Old Port), the commercial/industrial port, and the logistics port (Barcelona Free Port). The port is managed by the Port ...
, where they remained for some time, while the anarchists and their Catalan nationalist allies negotiated on how they would be used. They also used part of their money from the Xixón robbery to buy a
foundry A foundry is a factory that produces metal castings. Metals are cast into shapes by melting them into a liquid, pouring the metal into a mold, and removing the mold material after the metal has solidified as it cools. The most common metals pr ...
in
Poblenou ; ) is an extensive neighborhood of Barcelona’s Sant Martí (district), Sant Martí district that borders the Mediterranean Sea to the south, Sant Adrià del Besòs to the east, Parc de la Ciutadella in Ciutat Vella to the west, and Sant Andreu ...
, where they manufactured
grenade A grenade is a small explosive weapon typically thrown by hand (also called hand grenade), but can also refer to a Shell (projectile), shell (explosive projectile) shot from the muzzle of a rifle (as a rifle grenade) or a grenade launcher. A mod ...
s. At the foundry, Durruti and Eusebi Brau oversaw the manufacturing and storage of 6,000 hand grenades. Their grenade stockpile in the Barcelona neighbourhood of
Poble-sec (; ) is a neighborhood in the Sants-Montjuïc district of Barcelona, Catalonia (Spain). The neighborhood is located between Montjuïc mountain and the Avinguda del Paral·lel. It covers around 70 hectares. The Poble Sec station of the Barcelona ...
was ultimately discovered by police, but they had several weapons caches throughout the city that went unnoticed. From France and
Belgium Belgium, officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a country in Northwestern Europe. Situated in a coastal lowland region known as the Low Countries, it is bordered by the Netherlands to the north, Germany to the east, Luxembourg to the southeas ...
, members of ''Los Solidarios'' coordinated an
arms trafficking Arms trafficking or gunrunning is the illicit trade of contraband small arms, explosives, and ammunition, which constitutes part of a broad range of illegal activities often associated with transnational criminal organizations. The illegal tra ...
network, which shipped weapons into Spain through the border town of
Puigcerdà Puigcerdà (; , ) is the capital city, capital of the Catalan ''comarques of Catalonia, comarca'' of Cerdanya (comarca), Cerdanya, in the province of Girona, Catalonia, northern Spain, near the Segre River and on the border with France (it abuts ...
. Antonio Martín smuggled the weapons across the
France–Spain border The France–Spain border was formally defined in 1659. It separates the two countries from Hendaye and Irun in the west, running through the Pyrenees to Cerbère and Portbou on the Mediterranean Sea. It runs roughly along the drainage divide ...
. With these arms, ''Los Solidarios'' carried out a series of
lone wolf attack Lone wolf terrorism, or lone actor terrorism, is a type of terrorism committed by an individual who both plans and commits the act on their own. The precise definition of the term varies, and some definitions include those directed by larger org ...
s against police stations and banks, which provoked retaliations from the Civil Guard. With help from sympathisers in the
Pyrenees The Pyrenees are a mountain range straddling the border of France and Spain. They extend nearly from their union with the Cantabrian Mountains to Cap de Creus on the Mediterranean coast, reaching a maximum elevation of at the peak of Aneto. ...
, members of ''Los Solidarios'' began to escape Spain. In November 1923, García Vivancos went to Uviéu, where he planned to break Torres Escartín out of prison. He mobilised a regiment of prison guards to coordinate the escape, but at the last moment, the regiment was replaced with a different one. While he attempted to win the new regiment over, local police began to question his business in the city. He convinced them that he was a traveling salesman of
knitted fabric Knitted fabric is a textile that results from knitting, the process of inter-looping of yarns or inter-meshing of loops. Its properties are distinct from woven fabric in that it is more flexible and can be more readily constructed into smaller ...
, but believing now that the regiment transfer had been deliberate, he left Asturias and returned to Barcelona. Meanwhile, in Zaragoza, ''Los Solidarios'' broke several of its activists out of prison and organised their escape to France. Instead of following them to France, and despite Buenacasa's attempts to convince him to leave the country, Francisco Ascaso decided to return to Barcelona. The group soon learned that Ascaso's escape had intensified Martínez Anido's antipathy towards the "Durruti gang", which he intended to finally repress using the powers of the new dictatorship. Fearing for their lives, the group sent Ascaso and Durruti to
Paris Paris () is the Capital city, capital and List of communes in France with over 20,000 inhabitants, largest city of France. With an estimated population of 2,048,472 residents in January 2025 in an area of more than , Paris is the List of ci ...
. With the last of the money from the Xixón robbery, they were tasked with establishing a revolutionary centre in exile and publishing propaganda with the Anarcho-Communist Union (ACU). Upon arrival, Ascaso and Durruti immediately went to the ACU offices on in the
19th arrondissement of Paris The 19th arrondissement of Paris (''XIXe arrondissement'') is one of the 20 arrondissements of the capital city of France. In spoken French, this arrondissement is referred to as ''dix-neuvième''. The arrondissement, known as Butte-Chaumont, ...
, where they met with the administrator Séverin Férandel and his companion Berthe Fabert. The ACU agreed to help them with their new publishing project, to which the two ''Solidarios'' contributed 500,000 francs. With the French
Sébastien Faure Sébastien Faure (; 6 January 1858 – 14 July 1942) was a French anarchist, convicted sex offender, freethought and secularist activist and a principal proponent of synthesis anarchism. Biography Before becoming a free-thinker, Faure w ...
, Spanish
Valeriano Orobón Fernández Valeriano Orobón Fernández (1901–1936) was a Spanish anarcho-syndicalist political theorist, journalist and poet. He developed a theory for the structure of a post-capitalist society based on workers' cooperatives, attempted to mediate be ...
and Italian , they established the International Anarchist Press, which published a number of magazines and Faure's own ''
Anarchist Encyclopedia file:Éditions Anarchistes.jpgalt=Prometheus stands nude except for a loincloth, lofting a torch and stepping over a set of manaclesthumbdevice of the Éditions Anarchistes (publishers of the ''Anarchist Encyclopedia'') depicting Prometheus bringi ...
''. The Spanish press soon ran stories about the extravagant spending by the ''Solidarios'', alleging that Muñoz had used his share to buy land for his family in Iniesta. By 1924, many more Spanish anarchists were already fleeing from the dictatorship to France. Most of them concentrated in
Occitania Occitania is the historical region in Southern Europe where the Occitan language was historically spoken and where it is sometimes used as a second language. This cultural area roughly encompasses much of the southern third of France (except ...
, where they began organising emigrant networks and producing new Spanish language publications. This wave of organisation culminated with the establishment of the Anarchist Federation of Spanish-speaking Groups in Exile, a forerunner of the Iberian Anarchist Federation (FAI). Most Spanish anarchists remained optimistic and desired to return to Spain to overthrow the dictatorship. On 30 December 1923, the CNT reorganised itself into a clandestine organisation. In contrast with the optimistic Spaniards,
Italian Italian(s) may refer to: * Anything of, from, or related to the people of Italy over the centuries ** Italians, a Romance ethnic group related to or simply a citizen of the Italian Republic or Italian Kingdom ** Italian language, a Romance languag ...
and
Russian anarchists Anarchism in Russia developed out of the populist and nihilist movements' dissatisfaction with the government reforms of the time. The first Russian to identify himself as an anarchist was the revolutionary socialist Mikhail Bakunin, who became ...
who had fled to France had become dejected, due to their respective experiences with the
authoritarianism Authoritarianism is a political system characterized by the rejection of political plurality, the use of strong central power to preserve the political ''status quo'', and reductions in democracy, separation of powers, civil liberties, and ...
of the Bolsheviks and the
Fascists Fascism ( ) is a far-right, authoritarian, and ultranationalist political ideology and movement. It is characterized by a dictatorial leader, centralized autocracy, militarism, forcible suppression of opposition, belief in a natural social h ...
. French anarchists had also lost influence over the labour movement, as
Socialists Socialism is an economic and political philosophy encompassing diverse economic and social systems characterised by social ownership of the means of production, as opposed to private ownership. It describes the economic, political, and socia ...
and
Communists Communism () is a sociopolitical, philosophical, and economic ideology within the socialist movement, whose goal is the creation of a communist society, a socioeconomic order centered on common ownership of the means of production, d ...
had respectively gained control over the trade unions of the CGT and CGTU. The rise of Bolshevism caused ''Los Solidarios'' to reflect on the outcome of Russian Revolution; they believed the revolution had been corrupted by the circumstances of World War I, which resulted in the suppression of its most revolutionary tendencies and the establishment of a
dictatorship A dictatorship is an autocratic form of government which is characterized by a leader, or a group of leaders, who hold governmental powers with few to no Limited government, limitations. Politics in a dictatorship are controlled by a dictator, ...
. As the Bolsheviks had emerged from the war as the only organisation with a clear structure and objective, they were able to subordinate all others to its goal of seizing power. They thus concluded that if anarchists were to have greater influence over revolutionary movements, they would need to develop the revolutionary capabilities of the working classes through continuous
direct action Direct action is a term for economic and political behavior in which participants use agency—for example economic or physical power—to achieve their goals. The aim of direct action is to either obstruct a certain practice (such as a governm ...
, rather than embroiling themselves in theoretical debates.


Suppression

The dictatorship focused much of its repressive apparatus on the Catalan anarchist movement, with Martínez Anido, the new Interior Minister, specifically targeting ''Los Solidarios''. Using police informants, the dictatorship discovered their armouries and identified their safe houses. On 24 March 1924, police raided Suberviola's home. He attempted to escape by shooting his way out, but he was surrounded and executed; the authorities never knew he had participated in either the Xixón bank robbery or the assassination of Regueral. Soon after, police spies masquerading as persecuted anarchists asked Marcelino del Campo to take them to a safe house. Police ambushed him after he emerged into the street. He managed to kill two with his pistol, before being killed himself. Police then raided Fernández Sánchez's house, where they arrested him and his two brothers. They were charged for the Xixón bank robbery. When they emerged into the street, Fernández pushed his brothers into the path of the police and ran away, managing to escape through
Chinatown Chinatown ( zh, t=唐人街) is the catch-all name for an ethnic enclave of Chinese people located outside Greater China, most often in an urban setting. Areas known as "Chinatown" exist throughout the world, including Europe, Asia, Africa, O ...
. While he fled the police, his brother Ceferino and their comrade Adolfo Ballano would remain in prison for the remainder of the dictatorship. Police attempted to raid Domingo Ascaso's home, but he heard them coming up his building's stairwell and managed to lower himself down to the street using a rope he had kept for such an occasion. After his own arrest, Gregorio Jover took advantage of lax police vigilance to escape through a window in the police station. By the end of the raids against ''Los Solidarios'', Domingo Ascaso, Fernández Sánchez, Joan Garcia Oliver, Gregorio Jover, Alfonso Miguel and Ricardo Sanz still had not been captured. Miguel and Sanz themselves took over the responsibilities of Suberviola and del Campo in the Revolutionary Committee. After days of hiding out in a mausoleum in the Poblenou cemetery, Domingo Ascaso managed to find Garcia Oliver. He informed him that he was going to reunite with his brother and Durruti in Paris, so that they could accelerate preparations for revolution. By this time, the ''Crisol'' editorial board, including Ramona Berni, Gregorio Jover and Pepita Not, had also fled to France. In May 1924, Garcia Oliver attended a national meeting of the CNT in
Sabadell Sabadell () is a city and municipality in Catalonia, Spain. It is in the south of the ''comarca'' of Vallès Occidental, where it is one of the two capitals, the other being Terrassa. It is located on the River Ripoll, north of Barcelona, a ...
. The police raided the meeting, but most of the participants were able to escape. Garcia Oliver himself was arrested at the train station and transferred to
Burgos Burgos () is a city in Spain located in the autonomous community of Castile and León. It is the capital and most populous municipality of the province of Burgos. Burgos is situated in the north of the Iberian Peninsula, on the confluence of th ...
, where he spent the next six years in prison. By this time, Catalan liberals had seen promises of regional autonomy give way to political repression. Primo de Rivera outlawed the
Catalan language Catalan () is a Western Romance languages, Western Romance language and is the official language of Andorra, and the official language of three autonomous communities of Spain, autonomous communities in eastern Spain: Catalonia, the Balearic I ...
and the
Senyera The Senyera is a vexillological symbol based on the coat of arms of the Crown of Aragon, which consists of four red stripes on a yellow field. This coat of arms, often called ''bars of Aragon'', or simply ''"the four bars"'', historically repr ...
flag, and by the following year, he had dissolved the
Commonwealth of Catalonia The Commonwealth of Catalonia (, ) was a deliberative assembly made up of the councillors of the four provinces of Catalonia. Promoted in its final stages of gestation by the Regionalist League of Catalonia, it was strongly endorsed by municip ...
. In response to the repression, Francesc Macià's ''
Estat Català Estat Català (, literally "Catalan State") is a pro-independence nationalist historical political party of Catalonia (Spain). History Estat Català is a historical pro-independence political party in Catalonia, Spain. It was founded by Franc ...
'' party sought an alliance with the anarchists, with some of its members even joining the Revolutionary Committee.


Attempted insurrection

By the time of his arrival in Paris, Domingo Ascaso had put together a plan for an
insurrection Rebellion is an uprising that resists and is organized against one's government. A rebel is a person who engages in a rebellion. A rebel group is a consciously coordinated group that seeks to gain political control over an entire state or a ...
: ''
guerrilla Guerrilla warfare is a form of unconventional warfare in which small groups of irregular military, such as rebels, Partisan (military), partisans, paramilitary personnel or armed civilians, which may include Children in the military, recruite ...
s'' were to cross the Pyrenees into Catalonia and break hundreds of anarchists out of prison in
Figueres Figueres (; ) is the capital city of Alt Empordà county, in the Girona region, Catalonia, Spain. The town is the birthplace of artist Salvador Dalí, and houses the Dalí Theatre and Museum, a large museum designed by Dalí himself which att ...
; meanwhile, ''Los Solidarios'' were to finally seize the rifles they had bought in Eibar from the port of Barcelona, and with the support of soldiers in the Drassanes barracks, carry out an uprising. He soon began putting together a team of trusted people for the guerrilla operation, while awaiting a delegate from Barcelona to tell them when the local movement was ready. In July 1924, Gregorio Jover arrived in Paris. He informed Ascaso that all the Barcelona anarchist groups supported the operation and they had the commitment of sympathetic anti-authoritarian soldiers. While the Ascaso brothers and Durruti planned the operation, García Vivancos contacted a Belgian arms dealer, who sold him various calibers of pistol. By September 1924, the plans for the Pyrenees offensive were sketched out. While the Paris cell was making progress, in Barcelona, plans for the insurrection were already falling apart: the soldiers of Drassanes were losing interest, ''Los Solidarios'' had been unable to get the Eibar rifles from the port, and some activists were sceptical about whether workers would join them in an uprising. News of this caused hesitation among the revolutionaries in Paris, but Durruti and Ascaso remained optimistic about their chances and convinced their comrades to stay committed. Soon after, the liberal intellectuals
Miguel de Unamuno Miguel de Unamuno y Jugo (; ; 29 September 1864 – 31 December 1936) was a Spanish essayist, novelist, poet, playwright, philosopher, professor of Greek and Classics, and later rector at the University of Salamanca. His major philosophical ...
and escaped to Paris and began publishing criticisms of the dictatorship in '' Le Quotidien''. Valencian novelist
Vicente Blasco Ibáñez Vicente Blasco Ibáñez (, 29 January 1867 – 28 January 1928) was a journalist, politician, and a bestselling Spanish novelist in various genres whose most widespread and lasting fame in the English-speaking world is from Hollywood films that ...
also signed a denunciation of Alfonso XIII and the military dictatorship. Rising opposition to the dictatorship made the guerrilla action seem more likely to succeed. On 6 November 1924, the Revolutionary Committee initiated the operation. Spanish anarchists throughout France received telegrams calling them to action and they set off towards the France–Spain border in small armed groups. At the
Gare d'Orsay The Gare d'Orsay () is a former Paris railway station and hotel, built in 1900 to designs by Victor Laloux, Lucien Magne and Émile Bénard; it served as a terminus for the Chemin de Fer de Paris à Orléans (Paris–Orléans railway). It w ...
, Ascaso coordinated the rail passage of revolutionaries from Paris, who boarded the train south with guns concealed in their suitcases. The first group of revolutionaries arrived at the Basque side of the border, between
Hendaia Hendaye (; Basque: ''Hendaia'',HENDAIA
Bera Bera may refer to: Acronyms * Bioelectric recognition assay, a method in electrophysiology * Botswana Energy Regulatory Authority, an energy regulatory body in Botswana * Brainstem evoked response audiometry, a screening test to monitor for heari ...
, where they defeated a detachment of ''
Carabineros The was an armed carabiniers force of Spain under both the monarchy and the Second Spanish Republic, Second Republic. The formal mission of this paramilitary gendarmerie was to patrol the coasts and borders of the country, operating against ...
''. After marching through the mountains, they were ambushed by another and forced to retreat. Two of them were killed and others were arrested and taken to Iruña, where they were tried and executed. 18 hours later, another group of 1,000 revolutionaries arrived at
Perpinyà Perpignan (, , ; ; ) is the prefecture of the Pyrénées-Orientales department in Southern France, in the heart of the plain of Roussillon, at the foot of the Pyrenees a few kilometres from the Mediterranean Sea and the scrublands of the Co ...
, the capital of
Northern Catalonia Northern Catalonia, North Catalonia or French Catalonia is the Catalan language, Catalan-speaking and cultural territory ceded to France by Spain through the signing of the Treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659 in exchange for France's effective renu ...
, where they were informed about the defeat at Bera. Many dispersed or were arrested by French police, leaving only 50 who escaped into the Pyrenees with the Winchester rifles and bullets. They met with a local guide, who was supposed to take them towards Figueres to carry out the prison break, but he informed them that several artillery and machine gun regiments were waiting for them at the border. Realising it would be impossible to make the crossing, the revolutionaries turned back, many leaving in tears. Meanwhile, in Barcelona, revolutionaries made their way to the Drassanes barracks, intending to free members of ''Los Solidarios'' who were imprisoned there. Police blocked the way of the revolutionaries and a shootout ensued, during which an officer was killed. The police subsequently surrounded the barracks with machine guns, preventing any entry. Revolutionaries were arrested and executed on the spot. The anarchists who were imprisoned in Drassanes committed
suicide Suicide is the act of intentionally causing one's own death. Risk factors for suicide include mental disorders, physical disorders, and substance abuse. Some suicides are impulsive acts driven by stress (such as from financial or ac ...
. The insurrection was ultimately defeated. In the aftermath, Martínez Anido sent spies to France to spread
conspiracy theories A conspiracy theory is an explanation for an event or situation that asserts the existence of a conspiracy (generally by powerful sinister groups, often political in motivation), when other explanations are more probable.Additional sources: * ...
that it had been a false flag operation, while the Spanish government pressed their French counterparts to arrest and deport the exiled Spanish anarchists. By this time, many of the insurgents had already fled to Belgium or
South America South America is a continent entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a considerably smaller portion in the Northern Hemisphere. It can also be described as the southern Subregion#Americas, subregion o ...
. The Revolutionary Committee sent Ricardo Sanz to Paris, where he informed Ascaso and Durruti of the defeat in Barcelona and suggested they go to Latin America to collect funds. As the militant group ''
Los Errantes ''Los Errantes'' () was a Spanish anarchist militant group, which carried out a series of bank robberies in Latin America during the 1920s. Exiled from Spain by the dictatorship of Primo de Rivera, Buenaventura Durruti and Francisco Ascaso moved ...
'', Ascaso, Durruti and Gregorio Jover carried out a series of robberies in Latin America, before escaping back to Europe. By the end of 1924, most members of ''Los Solidarios'' had either been killed in combat with the authorities, arrested or driven into exile. ''Los Solidarios'' effectively stopped functioning as a cohesive group until the proclamation of the
Second Spanish Republic The Spanish Republic (), commonly known as the Second Spanish Republic (), was the form of democratic government in Spain from 1931 to 1939. The Republic was proclaimed on 14 April 1931 after the deposition of Alfonso XIII, King Alfonso XIII. ...
, when its surviving members were reunited. In their absence, the CNT reorganised itself under the leadership of the Catalan syndicalist Joan Peiró. He oversaw the formation of an alliance with the Catalan nationalists led by Francesc Macià, which became the principal opposition to the Primo de Rivera dictatorship. The last leading member of ''Los Solidarios'' who had remained in Spain was Ricardo Sanz, but he was soon arrested while attempting to organise a prison break.


Reorganisation

After the proclamation of the Second Spanish Republic on 14 April 1931, members of ''Los Solidarios'' were some of the first anarchist militants to return to Barcelona. Durruti, Ascaso, Liberto Callejas and
Joaquín Cortés Joaquín Pedraja Reyes (known professionally as Joaquín Cortés; born 1969) is a Spanish classically trained ballet and flamenco dancer. Biography Cortes was born to a Gitano family in Córdoba and showed interest in dancing from an early ...
returned from their Belgian exile; Aurelio Fernández, Garcia Oliver and Torres Escartín were later released from prison. Despite the popular enthusiasm for the new regime, ''Los Solidarios'' believed that the Republic would be not fundamentally change the existing socio-economic order in Spain and that this would cause popular discontent among the working class. They thus called on anarchists to channel popular discontent against the government, raise
class consciousness In Marxism, class consciousness is the set of beliefs that persons hold regarding their social class or economic rank in society, the structure of their class, and their common class interests. According to Karl Marx, class consciousness is an awa ...
and prepare for a social revolution. Members of ''Los Solidarios'' frequently gave speeches before crowds of workers, stoking revolutionary sentiments. In May 1931, after an
International Workers' Day International Workers' Day, also called Labour Day in some countries and often referred to as May Day, is a celebration of Wage labour, labourers and the working classes that is promoted by the international labour movement and occurs every yea ...
demonstration was suppressed by the newly established
Catalan government The Generalitat de Catalunya (; ; ), or the Government of Catalonia, is the institutional system by which Catalonia is self-governed as an autonomous community of Spain. It is made up of the Parliament of Catalonia, the President of the Governme ...
, anarchist groups in Barcelona called a meeting to discuss how to respond. At this meeting, ''Los Solidarios'' discovered that a new group in Barcelona had taken their name during their absence. They subsequently reorganised themselves into a new affinity group, '' Nosotros'', which called for a continuous practice of insurrection to foment a social revolution.


Members

*
Francisco Ascaso Francisco Ascaso Abadía (1 April 1901 – 20 July 1936) was an Aragonese carpenter and prominent anarcho-syndicalist figure in Spain. Ascaso lived a life of crime and violence being involved in the deaths of multiple high-profile governmen ...
*
Buenaventura Durruti José Buenaventura Durruti Dumange (14 July 1896 – 20 November 1936) was a Spanish anarchist revolutionary involved with the CNT and the FAI in the periods before and during the Spanish Civil War of 1936–1939. Durruti played an influe ...
*
Rafael Torres Escartín Rafael Liberato Torres Escartín (20 December 1901 – 1939) was a Spanish anarchist militant. Biography The son of Pedro Torres Marco and Orencia Escartín Villacampa, Rafael was born in the Bailo barracks of Guardia Civil, where his father ...
* Joan Garcia Oliver *
Aurelio Fernández Sánchez Aurelio Fernández Sánchez (Asturias, 1897 - Mexico, 1974) was an Asturians, Asturian anarchist. Biography Aurelio Fernández Sánchez joined the National Confederation of Labor ( CNT) in his youth. He participated in the Spanish general strike ...
*
Ricardo Sanz García Ricardo Sanz García (1898–1986) was a Valencians, Valencian anarchist militant. A member of Buenaventura Durruti's insurgent group Los Solidarios, Sanz participated in the anarchist armed struggle against the Restoration (Spain), Spanish mona ...
* Alfonso Miguel * Gregorio Suberviola * Eusebio Brau * Marcelino Manuel Campos *
Miguel García Vivancos Miguel García Vivancos (19 April 1895 in Mazarrón, Region of Murcia – 23 January 1972 in Córdoba) was a Spanish Naïve painter and anarchist. He was a member of the National Confederation of Labor (, CNT), during the Spanish Civil W ...
* Antonio Martín Escudero *
Juliana López Juliana López Mainar (1886–1971) was an Aragonese anarchist militant. Biography Juliana López Mainar was born in the Aragonese capital of Zaragoza. She was a cook by trade. López ran a guest house on Calle Arnaldo Alcober, in the neighbo ...
*
María Luisa Tejedor Maria may refer to: People * Mary, mother of Jesus * Maria (given name), a popular given name in many languages Place names Extraterrestrial *170 Maria, a Main belt S-type asteroid discovered in 1877 *Lunar maria (plural of ''mare''), large, da ...
* Pepita Not * Ramona Berni * Maria Rius *
Antonio Ortiz Ramírez Antonio Ortiz Ramírez (13 April 1907 – 2 April 1996) was a prominent member of the National Confederation of Labor and the Iberian Anarchist Federation. He dedicated himself to woodworking throughout his life, held various positions of resp ...
*
Gregorio Jover Gregorio Jover Cortés (Teruel, 25 October 1891 – Mexico, 22 March 1964) was an Aragonese anarcho-syndicalist and a member of the CNT during the first third of the 20th century. During the Spanish Civil War he was commander of the Ascaso Co ...
*
Domingo Ascaso Domingo may refer to: People *Domingo (name), a Spanish name and list of people with that name *Domingo (producer) (born 1970), American hip-hop producer *Saint Dominic (1170–1221), Castilian Catholic priest, founder of the Friars popularly cal ...


References


Bibliography

* * * * * * *


Further reading

* * * {{refend 1922 establishments in Spain 1924 disestablishments in Spain Anarchist organisations in Spain Defunct anarchist militant groups Defunct anarchist organizations in Europe Illegalism Left-wing militant groups in Spain Organizations established in 1922 Organizations disestablished in 1924 Terrorism in Spain