The Lopez Expedition (Spanish: Expedición López) of 1851 was an attempt led by Narciso López to invade and seize control of

Cuba Cuba, officially the Republic of Cuba, is an island country, comprising the island of Cuba (largest island), Isla de la Juventud, and List of islands of Cuba, 4,195 islands, islets and cays surrounding the main island. It is located where the ...

which was then part of the

Spanish Empire The Spanish Empire, sometimes referred to as the Hispanic Monarchy (political entity), Hispanic Monarchy or the Catholic Monarchy, was a colonial empire that existed between 1492 and 1976. In conjunction with the Portuguese Empire, it ushered ...

. Wary that Spain's rule in Cuba was unsustainable, López sought to have it annexed by the United States to ensure slavery's preservation in Cuba. He and American Southern volunteers hoped to incorporate Cuba as a slave state into the

United States The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...

. In August 1851, after two failed expeditions, a force comprising 420 Cuban emigres and American volunteers landed in western Cuba, where the invaders were defeated and captured by the Spanish forces. López and many of the other prisoners were executed. It was part of a string of

filibustering A filibuster is a political procedure in which one or more members of a legislative body prolong debate on proposed legislation so as to delay or entirely prevent a decision. It is sometimes referred to as "talking a bill to death" or "talking ...

raids launched from American territory during the era, in violation of the Neutrality Act.

Background

During the era of

Manifest Destiny Manifest destiny was the belief in the 19th century in the United States, 19th-century United States that American pioneer, American settlers were destined to expand westward across North America, and that this belief was both obvious ("''m ...

the territory of the United States expanded rapidly, most notably with the

Mexican Cession The Mexican Cession () is the region in the modern-day Western United States that Mexico Mexico, officially the United Mexican States, is a country in North America. It is the northernmost country in Latin America, and borders the United S ...

of 1848. The same year President Polk made an offer to purchase Cuba for $100 million, which was rejected by Spain. Cuba was particularly coveted by Southern supporters of slavery, who believed that Cuba with its large population of slaves would bolster the political strength of the

slave state In the United States before 1865, a slave state was a state in which slavery and the internal or domestic slave trade were legal, while a free state was one in which they were prohibited. Between 1812 and 1850, it was considered by the slave s ...

s if it were admitted to the Union. It was estimated Cuba would have thirteen or fifteen representatives in

Congress A congress is a formal meeting of the representatives of different countries, constituent states, organizations, trade unions, political parties, or other groups. The term originated in Late Middle English to denote an encounter (meeting of ...

. There were similar ambitions towards states of northern Mexico such as

Tamaulipas Tamaulipas, officially the Free and Sovereign State of Tamaulipas, is a state in Mexico; one of the 31 states which, along with Mexico City, comprise the 32 federal entities of Mexico. It is divided into 43 municipalities. It is located in nor ...

, where it was believed the climate would suit the introduction of slaves, but Cuba had the advantage of an existing plantation economy. The campaign to end Spanish rule in Cuba attracted support from a number of southern political figures who were later prominent Confederates including

Jefferson Davis Jefferson F. Davis (June 3, 1808December 6, 1889) was an American politician who served as the only President of the Confederate States of America, president of the Confederate States from 1861 to 1865. He represented Mississippi in the Unite ...

. The northern Democrat

Stephen Douglas Stephen Arnold Douglas ( né Douglass; April 23, 1813 – June 3, 1861) was an American politician and lawyer from Illinois. As a U.S. senator, he was one of two nominees of the badly split Democratic Party to run for president in the 1860 ...

also supported annexation. Democrats made it a political issue, with Southern Whigs also loudly stating their commitment to taking Cuba. The cause of Cuba was compared to that of the Texas Republic which had won its independence in 1836 before joining the United States. However, the new Whig administration renounced any plan to buy Cuba from Spain. Increasingly those who wished to acquire the island turned towards seizing Cuba by force. They received strong backing from Mississippi Governor John Quitman, who formed an alliance with the

Venezuelan Venezuelans (Spanish language, Spanish: ''venezolanos'') are the Citizenship, citizens identified with the country of Venezuela. This connection may be through citizenship, descent or cultural. For most Venezuelans, many or all of these connect ...

-born adventurer Narciso López. López had contacts with potential insurgents in Cuba, but many of them favoured full independence rather than annexation. An initial expedition in 1849 assembled near

Pascagoula The Pascagoula (also Pascoboula, Pacha-Ogoula, Pascagola, Pascaboula, Paskaguna) were an indigenous group living in coastal Mississippi on the Pascagoula River. The name ''Pascagoula'' is a Choctaw term meaning "bread eater". Choctaw native Am ...

was prevented from sailing by American authorities. Shifting his base from New York City to

New Orleans New Orleans (commonly known as NOLA or The Big Easy among other nicknames) is a Consolidated city-county, consolidated city-parish located along the Mississippi River in the U.S. state of Louisiana. With a population of 383,997 at the 2020 ...

where there was much greater support for filibustering, López launched a second expedition in 1850. His attempts to persuade Jefferson Davis, John Quitman or

Robert E. Lee Robert Edward Lee (January 19, 1807 – October 12, 1870) was a general officers in the Confederate States Army, Confederate general during the American Civil War, who was appointed the General in Chief of the Armies of the Confederate ...

to take command were rejected, and López oversaw it himself. Reaching Cárdenas he landed, burned the governor's mansion and raised the Cuban flag for the first time. An expected uprising by Cuban revolutionaries did not occur and the filibusters rapidly fled back to Florida pursued by the

Spanish Navy The Spanish Navy, officially the Armada, is the Navy, maritime branch of the Spanish Armed Forces and one of the oldest active naval forces in the world. The Spanish Navy was responsible for a number of major historic achievements in navigation ...

. Five Americans who were left behind were executed. Lopez, Quitman and others were prosecuted for violating the Neutrality Act but a jury in New Orleans, where they were wildly popular for their efforts, acquitted one of their conspirators and the remaining indictments were dropped.

Expedition

López immediately began efforts to launch another attempt, gathering financing and fresh recruits. This time Quitman kept his distance from the plot. As before many of the recruits were veterans of the Mexican War, while a number of Hungarian exiles also enlisted. López gave command of a regiment of American volunteers to William Logan Crittenden, a nephew of the

Attorney General In most common law jurisdictions, the attorney general (: attorneys general) or attorney-general (AG or Atty.-Gen) is the main legal advisor to the government. In some jurisdictions, attorneys general also have executive responsibility for law enf ...

John J. Crittenden. López never clarified whether the ultimate goal of the expedition was to be Cuban independence or annexation by America, drawing supporters of both outcomes into his movement. Inspired by news of uprisings breaking out in Cuba, López hurried the preparations of his fresh invasion. The expedition departed from New Orleans on 3 August 1851. By the time the expedition landed at

Pinar del Río Province The Pinar del Río Province is one of the 15 provinces of Cuba. It is at the western end of the island of Cuba. The capital and largest city is Pinar del Río (191,081 pop. in 2022). Geography The Pinar del Río province is Cuba's westernmost p ...

in western Cuba, the

Spanish Army The Spanish Army () is the terrestrial army of the Spanish Armed Forces responsible for land-based military operations. It is one of the oldest Standing army, active armies – dating back to the late 15th century. The Spanish Army has existed ...

had already defeated the uprisings which had been more limited than American newspapers reported. Their leader

Joaquín de Agüero Joaquín de Agüero (15 November 1816 – 12 August 1851) was a Cuban revolutionary. In 1843 he freed all his slaves. In 1851 he headed an insurrection against the Spanish government, in the central part of the island coinciding with the filibus ...

was taken and executed. Well-prepared for López this time, Spanish troops under Captain General José Gutiérrez de la Concha defeated the filibusters in several engagements. They killed around 200 of them and took the rest prisoner. López compounded his problems by dividing his small force, with Crittenden operating separately before their defeat. The prisoners were taken to

Havana Havana (; ) is the capital and largest city of Cuba. The heart of La Habana Province, Havana is the country's main port and commercial center.garroted in front of thousands of spectators. Crittenden and 50 other Americans were lined up and shot in the city's Old Square. Most of the remaining prisoners were sentenced to hard labor in the quicksilver mines of

Ceuta Ceuta (, , ; ) is an Autonomous communities of Spain#Autonomous cities, autonomous city of Spain on the North African coast. Bordered by Morocco, it lies along the boundary between the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. Ceuta is one of th ...

, a Spanish city in north Africa. They were released a year later.

Aftermath

In reaction mobs rioted in

, destroying the Spanish consulate and ransacking Spanish-owned shops. Despite the inflamed public mood in the south, the administration of

Millard Fillmore Millard Fillmore (January 7, 1800 – March 8, 1874) was the 13th president of the United States, serving from 1850 to 1853. He was the last president to be a member of the Whig Party while in the White House, and the last to be neither a De ...

was embarrassed by the failure to prevent the expedition from sailing in the first place and confined itself to securing the release of remaining American prisoners still in Spanish hands. American attempts to acquire Cuba continued, set out in the

Ostend Manifesto The Ostend Manifesto, also known as the Ostend Circular, was a document written in 1854 that described the rationale for the United States to purchase Cuba from Spain while implying that the U.S. should declare war if Spain refused. Cuba's annex ...

of 1854. Quitman also prepared a fresh filibustering expedition, this time with the tacit support of new President

Franklin Pierce Franklin Pierce (November 23, 1804October 8, 1869) was the 14th president of the United States, serving from 1853 to 1857. A northern Democratic Party (United States), Democrat who believed that the Abolitionism in the United States, abolitio ...

. Although this was called off under diplomatic pressure, and opposition by Northern free soilers, attempts to purchase Cuba continued until the

Civil War A civil war is a war between organized groups within the same Sovereign state, state (or country). The aim of one side may be to take control of the country or a region, to achieve independence for a region, or to change government policies.J ...

broke out.McPherson p.108-110 In the wake of López's attack on Cuba, a string of filibusters launched attempts in the

Gulf of Mexico The Gulf of Mexico () is an oceanic basin and a marginal sea of the Atlantic Ocean, mostly surrounded by the North American continent. It is bounded on the northeast, north, and northwest by the Gulf Coast of the United States; on the southw ...

and beyond, most notably William Walker. In 1854 southern socialite Lucy Pickens wrote a novel ''The Free Flag of Cuba'' which provided a romanticized account of the expedition.

References

Bibliography

* Burton, Orville Vernon & Burton, Georganne B. ''The Free Flag of Cuba: The Lost Novel of Lucy Holcombe Pickens''. LSU Press, 2002. * Chaffin, Tom. ''Fatal Glory: Narciso López and the First Clandestine U.S. War Against Cuba''. University Press of Virginia, 1996. * Caldwell, Robert Granville. ''The Lopez Expeditions to Cuba 1848–1851''. Princeton University Press, 1915. * May, Robert E. ''John A. Quitman: Old South Crusader''. LSU Press, 1985. * McPherson, James M. ''Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era''. Oxford University Press, 2003. * Thomas, Hugh. ''Cuba: A History''. Penguin, 2013. 1851 in Cuba 1851 in Spain 1851 in the United States Cuban nationalism Rebellions in Cuba Invasions of Cuba Filibusters (military) Rebellions against the Spanish Empire Slavery in Cuba