Formal scientists have attempted to combine
formal logic
Logic is the study of correct reasoning. It includes both formal and informal logic. Formal logic is the study of deductively valid inferences or logical truths. It examines how conclusions follow from premises based on the structure o ...
(the science of
deductively valid inferences or of
logical truth
Logical truth is one of the most fundamental concepts in logic. Broadly speaking, a logical truth is a statement which is true regardless of the truth or falsity of its constituent propositions. In other words, a logical truth is a statement whic ...
s) and
dialectic
Dialectic (; ), also known as the dialectical method, refers originally to dialogue between people holding different points of view about a subject but wishing to arrive at the truth through reasoned argument. Dialectic resembles debate, but the ...
(a form of reasoning based upon dialogue of
argument
An argument is a series of sentences, statements, or propositions some of which are called premises and one is the conclusion. The purpose of an argument is to give reasons for one's conclusion via justification, explanation, and/or persu ...
s and counter-arguments) through
formalisation of dialectic. These attempts include pre-formal and partially formal treatises on argument and
dialectic
Dialectic (; ), also known as the dialectical method, refers originally to dialogue between people holding different points of view about a subject but wishing to arrive at the truth through reasoned argument. Dialectic resembles debate, but the ...
, systems based on
defeasible reasoning
In philosophy of logic, defeasible reasoning is a kind of provisional reasoning that is rationally compelling, though not deductively valid. It usually occurs when a rule is given, but there may be specific exceptions to the rule, or subclasse ...
, and systems based on
game semantics
Game semantics is an approach to Formal semantics (logic), formal semantics that grounds the concepts of truth or Validity (logic), validity on Game theory, game-theoretic concepts, such as the existence of a winning strategy for a player. In this ...
and
dialogical logic.
History
Since the late 20th century, European and American
logic
Logic is the study of correct reasoning. It includes both formal and informal logic. Formal logic is the study of deductively valid inferences or logical truths. It examines how conclusions follow from premises based on the structure o ...
ians have attempted to provide mathematical foundations for dialectic through formalisation,
although logic has been related to dialectic since ancient times.
There have been pre-formal and partially-formal treatises on argument and dialectic, from authors such as
Stephen Toulmin
Stephen Edelston Toulmin (; 25 March 1922 – 4 December 2009) was a British philosopher, author, and educator. Influenced by Ludwig Wittgenstein, Toulmin devoted his works to the analysis of moral reasoning. Throughout his writings, he sought ...
(''The Uses of Argument'', 1958),
Nicholas Rescher
Nicholas Rescher (; ; 15 July 1928 – 5 January 2024) was a German-born American philosopher, polymath, and author, who was a professor of philosophy at the University of Pittsburgh from 1961. He was chairman of the Center for Philosophy of Sc ...
(''Dialectics: A Controversy-Oriented Approach to the Theory of Knowledge'', 1977),
and
Frans H. van Eemeren and
Rob Grootendorst (
pragma-dialectics, 1980s).
One can include works of the communities of
informal logic
Informal logic encompasses the principles of logic and logical thought outside of a formal setting (characterized by the usage of particular statements). However, the precise definition of "informal logic" is a matter of some dispute. Ralph H. ...
and
paraconsistent logic
Paraconsistent logic is a type of non-classical logic that allows for the coexistence of contradictory statements without leading to a logical explosion where anything can be proven true. Specifically, paraconsistent logic is the subfield of log ...
.
Defeasibility
Building on theories of
defeasible reasoning
In philosophy of logic, defeasible reasoning is a kind of provisional reasoning that is rationally compelling, though not deductively valid. It usually occurs when a rule is given, but there may be specific exceptions to the rule, or subclasse ...
(see
John L. Pollock), systems have been built that define well-formedness of arguments, rules governing the process of introducing arguments based on fixed assumptions, and rules for shifting burden.
Many of these logics appear in the special area of
artificial intelligence and law, though the computer scientists' interest in formalizing dialectic originates in a desire to build
decision support
A decision support system (DSS) is an information system that supports business or organizational decision-making activities. DSSs serve the management, operations and planning levels of an organization (usually mid and higher management) and ...
and computer-supported collaborative work systems.
[For surveys of work in this area see, for example: And: ]
Dialog games
Dialectic itself can be formalised as moves in a game, where an advocate for the truth of a proposition and an opponent argue.
Such games can provide a
semantics of logic
In logic, the semantics of logic or formal semantics is the study of the meaning and interpretation of formal languages, formal systems, and (idealizations of) natural languages. This field seeks to provide precise mathematical models tha ...
, one that is very general in applicability.
See also
*
Argumentation framework
*
Argumentation theory
Argumentation theory is the interdisciplinary study of how conclusions can be supported or undermined by premises through logical reasoning. With historical origins in logic, dialectic, and rhetoric, argumentation theory includes the arts and scie ...
*
Logic of argumentation
References
{{reflist
Dialectic
Formal logic