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Tower house A tower house is a particular type of stone structure, built for defensive purposes as well as habitation. Tower houses began to appear in the Middle Ages, especially in mountainous or limited access areas, to command and defend strategic points ...
s ( ; , ; , ) developed and were built since the
Middle Ages In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the 5th to the late 15th centuries, similarly to the post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and ...
in the
Balkans The Balkans ( , ), corresponding partially with the Balkan Peninsula, is a geographical area in southeastern Europe with various geographical and historical definitions. The region takes its name from the Balkan Mountains that stretch throug ...
,Greville Pounds 1994
p. 335
"In southeastern Europe, where the extended family was exemplified as nowhere else in the western world, the home itself was often protected, giving rise to the kula or tower- house."
particularly in
Albania Albania ( ; or ), officially the Republic of Albania (), is a country in Southeast Europe. It is located in the Balkans, on the Adriatic Sea, Adriatic and Ionian Seas within the Mediterranean Sea, and shares land borders with Montenegro to ...
,
Kosovo Kosovo, officially the Republic of Kosovo, is a landlocked country in Southeast Europe with International recognition of Kosovo, partial diplomatic recognition. It is bordered by Albania to the southwest, Montenegro to the west, Serbia to the ...
and
Montenegro , image_flag = Flag of Montenegro.svg , image_coat = Coat of arms of Montenegro.svg , coa_size = 80 , national_motto = , national_anthem = () , image_map = Europe-Mont ...
, but also in
Bosnia and Herzegovina Bosnia and Herzegovina, sometimes known as Bosnia-Herzegovina and informally as Bosnia, is a country in Southeast Europe. Situated on the Balkans, Balkan Peninsula, it borders Serbia to the east, Montenegro to the southeast, and Croatia to th ...
,
Bulgaria Bulgaria, officially the Republic of Bulgaria, is a country in Southeast Europe. It is situated on the eastern portion of the Balkans directly south of the Danube river and west of the Black Sea. Bulgaria is bordered by Greece and Turkey t ...
,
Greece Greece, officially the Hellenic Republic, is a country in Southeast Europe. Located on the southern tip of the Balkan peninsula, it shares land borders with Albania to the northwest, North Macedonia and Bulgaria to the north, and Turkey to th ...
,
North Macedonia North Macedonia, officially the Republic of North Macedonia, is a landlocked country in Southeast Europe. It shares land borders with Greece to the south, Albania to the west, Bulgaria to the east, Kosovo to the northwest and Serbia to the n ...
and
Serbia , image_flag = Flag of Serbia.svg , national_motto = , image_coat = Coat of arms of Serbia.svg , national_anthem = () , image_map = , map_caption = Location of Serbia (gree ...
, as well as in
Oltenia Oltenia (), also called Lesser Wallachia in antiquated versions – with the alternative Latin names , , and between 1718 and 1739 – is a historical province and geographical region of Romania in western Wallachia. It is situated between the Da ...
, in
Romania Romania is a country located at the crossroads of Central Europe, Central, Eastern Europe, Eastern and Southeast Europe. It borders Ukraine to the north and east, Hungary to the west, Serbia to the southwest, Bulgaria to the south, Moldova to ...
. Originating from the Mediterranean-Medieval stone tower houses, they were developed by
Albanian Albanian may refer to: *Pertaining to Albania in Southeast Europe; in particular: **Albanians, an ethnic group native to the Balkans **Albanian language **Albanian culture **Demographics of Albania, includes other ethnic groups within the country ...
carpenter-mason craftsmanship, which had a strong reputation within the Ottoman as well as the European elites for the construction of advanced residential housing. Mid-19th century studies pointed out that all the men – almost without exception – who build walls, fell trees and saw lumber in the European part of the
Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire (), also called the Turkish Empire, was an empire, imperial realm that controlled much of Southeast Europe, West Asia, and North Africa from the 14th to early 20th centuries; it also controlled parts of southeastern Centr ...
and in the
Kingdom of Greece The Kingdom of Greece (, Romanization, romanized: ''Vasíleion tis Elládos'', pronounced ) was the Greece, Greek Nation state, nation-state established in 1832 and was the successor state to the First Hellenic Republic. It was internationally ...
, were from Albania, specifically from mountainous regions. For metal work
Balkan Egyptians The Ashkali ( sr-Cyrl-Latn, Ашкалије, Aškalije, separator=" / ", link=no), otherwise known as Hashkali ( sr-Cyrl-Latn, Хашкалије, Haškalije, separator=" / ", link=no) and/or Balkan Egyptians ( sr-Cyrl-Latn, Балкански ...
were contracted, and specific fortification features were sometimes left to stone mason specialists from the Adriatic coast. The practice became very widespread among both Christian and Muslim communities during the decline of Ottoman power in the 17th century and flourished until the early 20th century. The tower houses were typically made out of stone, rose three or four storeys, and were square or rectangular in shape.Grube-Mitchell 1978, p. 204: "a distinctive form of defensive tower-dwelling, the kula, developed among both the Christian and the Muslim communities during the insecure period of the decline of the Ottoman authority in the 17th century ..." They served both military (defence,
watchtower A watchtower or guardtower (also spelt watch tower, guard tower) is a type of military/paramilitary or policiary tower used for guarding an area. Sometimes fortified, and armed with heavy weaponry, especially historically, the structures are ...
) and civilian (residential) purposes in order to protect the extended family.


Names

Tower houses are called in ; , ; , , all meaning "tower", from
Arabic Arabic (, , or , ) is a Central Semitic languages, Central Semitic language of the Afroasiatic languages, Afroasiatic language family spoken primarily in the Arab world. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) assigns lang ...
(, “fort, fortress”) via
Persian Persian may refer to: * People and things from Iran, historically called ''Persia'' in the English language ** Persians, the majority ethnic group in Iran, not to be conflated with the Iranic peoples ** Persian language, an Iranian language of the ...
, meaning "mountain" or "top", and Turkish .


In Albania

Types of tower houses in
Albanian architecture The architecture of Albania ( ) is a reflection of Albania's historical and cultural heritage. The country's architecture was influenced by its location within the Mediterranean Basin and progressed over the course of history as it was once inh ...
existed before the Ottoman invasion of the Balkans, especially in Gjirokastër. Albanian ''kullë'' are predominantly found in the north of the country, with notable instances in the south being
Berat Berat (; sq-definite, Berati) is the List of cities and towns in Albania, ninth most populous city of Albania and the seat of Berat County and Berat Municipality. By air, it is north of Gjirokastër, west of Korçë, south of Tirana, and ea ...
,
Gjirokastër Gjirokastër (, sq-definite, Gjirokastra) is a List of cities and towns in Albania, city in Southern Albania, southern Albania and the seat of Gjirokastër County and Gjirokastër Municipality. It is located in a valley between the Gjerë moun ...
, Himara, and
Këlcyrë Këlcyrë ( sq-definite, Këlcyra) is a town and a municipality in southern Albania, located on the bank of the river Vjosë. It was formed at the 2015 local government reform by the merger of the former municipalities Ballaban, Dishnicë, Këlc ...
. Kullas are heavily fortified buildings with small windows and shooting holes, because their main purpose was to offer security in a fighting situation. The first kullas that were built are from the 17th century, a time when there was continuous fighting in the Dukagjini region, although most of the ones that still remain are from the 18th or 19th century. They are almost always built within a complex of buildings with various functions, but kullas in towns exist mostly as standalone structures. They are also positioned within the complex of buildings that they exist in a way that makes it possible for the inhabitants to survey the surrounding area. Kullas in towns are usually built as standalone structures, while in villages they are more commonly found as a part of a larger ensemble of kullas and stone houses, usually grouped based on the family clan they belonged to. Certain kullë were used as places of isolation and safe havens, or "locked towers" (), intended for the use of persons targeted by
blood feud A feud , also known in more extreme cases as a blood feud, vendetta, faida, clan war, gang war, private war, or mob war, is a long-running argument or fight, often between social groups of people, especially family, families or clans. Feuds begin ...
s (''
gjakmarrja In traditional Albanian culture, ( English: "blood-taking", i.e. "blood feud") or ("revenge") is the social obligation to kill an offender or a member of their family in order to salvage one's honor. This practice is generally seen as in line w ...
''). An example can be found in
Theth Theth () is a small village within Shkodër County, Albania. Following the 2015 local government reform it became part of the municipality Shkodër, and has been declared a Protected Historic Center and a National Park by the Albanian Government. ...
, northern Albania. There are also instances of fortified tower houses in Gjirokastër built in the 13th century, pre-dating Ottoman conquest.


In Bosnia and Herzegovina

Towers and ''odžaks'' are usually built next to each other as fortification and residential buildings. Although easily confused they differ in material and purpose. However, sometime one building can be both at once. There used to be over three hundred such facilities in the territory of
Bosnia and Herzegovina Bosnia and Herzegovina, sometimes known as Bosnia-Herzegovina and informally as Bosnia, is a country in Southeast Europe. Situated on the Balkans, Balkan Peninsula, it borders Serbia to the east, Montenegro to the southeast, and Croatia to th ...
, and today there are over forty villages and hamlets named Kula and twelve Kulina, thirty-one settlements are called Odžak, four Odžaci and one Odžačina. A number of these towers and ''odžaks'' have been declared a
national monument of Bosnia and Herzegovina The National Monuments of Bosnia and Herzegovina include: *sites, places, immovable and movable heritage of historical and cultural importance, as designated by the Commission to preserve national monuments of Bosnia and Herzegovina on the basis o ...
. Local feudal lords of the
Ottoman era The Ottoman Empire (), also called the Turkish Empire, was an imperial realm that controlled much of Southeast Europe, West Asia, and North Africa from the 14th to early 20th centuries; it also controlled parts of southeastern Central Euro ...
built these stone multi-storey towers on their estates with a defensive and housing purpose. The city fortification and housing architecture often served as a model, with loopholes adopted from the city ramparts, and sanitary and other elements from the town houses were included. The tower is
multi-story building A building or edifice is an enclosed structure with a roof, walls and windows, usually standing permanently in one place, such as a house or factory. Buildings come in a variety of sizes, shapes, and functions, and have been adapted throughout ...
with the base usually a square between 6 and 10 meters, less often a rectangle, and the height is between 11 and 20, and in some cases up to 25 meters. They were built from limestone, covered with a tented roof made of
wood shingle Wood shingles are thin, tapered pieces of wood primarily used to cover roof shingle, roofs and walls of buildings to protect them from the weather. Historically roof shingle, shingles, also known as shakes, were split from straight grained, k ...
or limestone slabs. The walls near the ground floor are always slightly thicker than the walls on the upper floors, varying between 100 and 152 cm. ''Odžaks'' were built next to the towers as regular one or two-story residential buildings with a rectangular base. They were built of stone, adobe and wood. There is always a spacious courtyard surrounded by a wall with the arched gate, protecting courtyard, towers and ''odžaks''. There are also other buildings in the yard, including
water well A well is an excavation or structure created on the earth by digging, driving, or drilling to access liquid resources, usually water. The oldest and most common kind of well is a water well, to access groundwater in underground aquifers. The ...
or
water well pump A water well pump is a pump that is used in extracting water from a water well. Deep well pumps extract groundwater from subterranean aquifers, offering a reliable source of water independent of municipal networks. These pumps, often submersible an ...
. A particular type of tower is the
captain's tower Captain's Tower () is a tower in Naxxar, Malta. It was built sometime after 1548 by the Knights Hospitaller, Order of Saint John. Today, the tower is in good condition. History The Captain's Tower was built by the Knights Hospitaller, Order of ...
. They were built in the same way as those of landlords, but below these towers there were often dungeons.


In Bulgaria

Examples of fortified residential towers in Bulgarian lands include the 16th-century Tower of the Meshchii (converted into a
clock tower Clock towers are a specific type of structure that house a turret clock and have one or more clock faces on the upper exterior walls. Many clock towers are freestanding structures but they can also adjoin or be located on top of another building ...
in the 19th century) and the 17th-century Kurtpashov Tower in
Vratsa Vratsa ( ) is the largest city in northwestern Bulgaria and the administrative and economic centre of the municipality of Vratsa and Vratsa district. It is about north of Sofia, southeast of Montana. Situated at the foot of the Vrachanski Bal ...
in Bulgaria's northwest. The Pirgova (Pirkova) Tower, similar in purpose but different in design, was built in the southwestern town of
Kyustendil Kyustendil ( ) is a town in the far west of Bulgaria, the capital of the Kyustendil Province, a former bishopric and present Latin Catholic titular see. The town is situated in the southern part of the Kyustendil Valley, near the borders of ...
in the 14th or 15th century. The tower in Teshovo in south
Pirin The Pirin Mountains ( ) are a mountain range in southwestern Bulgaria, with the highest peak, Vihren, at an altitude of . The range extends about from the north-west to the south-east and is about wide, spanning a territory of . To the north ...
, noted for its relatively sophisticated water conduit and
sewage Sewage (or domestic sewage, domestic wastewater, municipal wastewater) is a type of wastewater that is produced by a community of people. It is typically transported through a sewerage, sewer system. Sewage consists of wastewater discharged fro ...
system, is also thought to date to the early Ottoman rule of Bulgaria and may well have been the residence of a local
bey Bey, also spelled as Baig, Bayg, Beigh, Beig, Bek, Baeg, Begh, or Beg, is a Turkic title for a chieftain, and a royal, aristocratic title traditionally applied to people with special lineages to the leaders or rulers of variously sized areas in ...
. The Tower of Hrelyo, built in 1334–5 by '' prōtosebastos''
Hrelja Hrelja may refer to: * Hrelja (protosebastos), 14th-century feudal lord from northeastern Macedonia and the Rila mountains * Silvano Hrelja (born 1958), Croatian politician * Adnan Hrelja (born 1993), Bosnian-Herzegovinian footballer See also * ...
in the courtyard of the
Rila Monastery The Monastery of Saint John of Rila, also known as Rila Monastery ("Sveti Ivan Rilski" (), is the largest and most famous Eastern Orthodox monastery in Bulgaria. It is situated in the southwestern Rila Mountains, south of the capital Sofia in th ...
, is a pre-Ottoman example of an autonomous tower that served residential as well as defensive purposes. Besides featuring habitable floors, the Hrelyo's Tower also includes an Orthodox chapel on its top floor.


In Greece

The tradition of tower houses in Greek architecture existed since
Byzantine The Byzantine Empire, also known as the Eastern Roman Empire, was the continuation of the Roman Empire centred on Constantinople during late antiquity and the Middle Ages. Having survived the events that caused the fall of the Western Roman E ...
and
Frankish Frankish may refer to: * Franks, a Germanic tribe and their culture ** Frankish language or its modern descendants, Franconian languages, a group of Low Germanic languages also commonly referred to as "Frankish" varieties * Francia, a post-Roman ...
times. Although the Ottoman-period architecture has almost completely disappeared from Greek urban centres, there are scattered examples of tower houses built in
Ottoman Greece The vast majority of the territory of present-day Greece was at some point incorporated within the Ottoman Empire. The period of Ottoman rule in Greece, lasting from the mid-15th century until the successful Greek War of Independence broke out ...
and during the
chiflik Chiflik, or chiftlik (Ottoman Turkish: ; ; , ''chiflik''; , ''čiflig''; , ''tsiflíki''; /''čitluk''), is a Turkish term for a system of land management in the Ottoman Empire. Before the chiflik system the Empire used a non-hereditary form o ...
s. Alongside the fortified houses of
Mani Mani may refer to: People * Mani (name), (), a given name and surname (including a list of people with the name) ** Mani (prophet) (c. 216–274), a 3rd century Iranian prophet who founded Manichaeism ** Mani (musician) (born 1962), an English ...
(called ''xemonia''), there are also residential towers (''koule'') of Ottoman origin.


In Kosovo

In Kosovo, traditional two-or three-story ''kullas'' were primarily built between the 18th and early 20th centuries. These fortified stone houses served as both dwellings and defensive structures, reflecting the socio-political conditions of the time. They were typically constructed using locally sourced stone, with some incorporating decorative wooden elements on the upper floors. The ground floor was generally used for storage and livestock, while the upper floors housed living quarters and guest reception areas. Historically, ''kullas'' were inhabited solely by men, while women and children lived in an adjoining ''çardak'' (annex). This arrangement was influenced by cultural and religious traditions, particularly those emphasizing gender segregation in social spaces. The ''kulla's'' characteristic double entrances and staircases reflected this separation, as only the side entrance and staircase provided access to private family quarters. The exterior walls of a ''kulla'' could be up to one meter thick at ground level, gradually thinning toward the roof. Small, narrow openings, known as ''frëngji,'' were incorporated into the walls. These openings served a dual purpose: they allowed for limited natural light and ventilation while acting as defensive loopholes from which inhabitants could repel attacks. The fortress-like design of ''kullas'' was a response to the frequent conflicts and blood feuds (''gjakmarrja'') that characterized life in the Balkans during the Ottoman period. Apart from their defensive function, ''kullas'' were designed to withstand the region’s climate. Their thick stone walls provided insulation, keeping the interiors cool in summer and warm in winter. This natural climate regulation made them well-suited to Kosovo’s continental climate, where summers can be hot and winters cold. Several historic ''kullas'' remain standing today, serving as cultural heritage monuments. Notable examples in Kosovo include: * Jashar Pasha’s Tower (''Kulla e Jashar Pashës'') – located in Gjakova, this kulla is one of the best-preserved examples of its kind. * Haxhi Zeka’s Tower (''Kulla e Haxhi Zekës'') – situated in Peja, it belonged to Haxhi Zeka, a prominent nationalist and political figure. * Xhafer Syla’s Tower (''Kulla e Xhafer Sylës'') – an example of a well-maintained kulla in the Dukagjini region. * Mazrekaj Tower (''Kulla e Mazrekajve'') – located in Junik, showcasing traditional kulla architecture. * Janjevo Tower (''Kulla e Janjevës'') – representing an adaptation of kulla design in central Kosovo. * Tomić’s Tower (''Kulla e Tomiçit'') – an example of a Serb-owned kulla in Kosovo, highlighting the architectural influence across communities. * Osdautaj’s Tower (''Kulla e Osdautajve'') – located in Isniq, known for its well-preserved Ottoman-era structure. Despite their cultural and historical importance, many ''kullas'' in Kosovo have been neglected or damaged due to war and lack of preservation efforts. While some have been restored and repurposed as museums or cultural heritage sites, others remain at risk of deterioration. Preservation initiatives by organizations such as the ''Ministry of Culture, Youth, and Sports of Kosovo,'' as well as international projects like ''Ilucidare'', aim to document and protect these unique structures.


In Serbia

Despot Stefan Tower (
Serbian Serbian may refer to: * Pertaining to Serbia in Southeast Europe; in particular **Serbs, a South Slavic ethnic group native to the Balkans ** Serbian language ** Serbian culture **Demographics of Serbia, includes other ethnic groups within the co ...
: Деспотова кула; ''Despotova kula'') was built by medieval Serbian carpenter-masons for
Serbian King This is an wiktionary:archontology, archontological list of Serbs, Serbian monarchs, containing Monarch, monarchs of the Serbia in the Middle Ages, medieval principalities, to heads of state of modern Serbia. The :Serbian monarchy, Serbian mona ...
Stefan Lazarević Stefan Lazarević ( sr-Cyrl, Стефан Лазаревић, 1377 – 19 July 1427), also known as Stefan the Tall (), was a Serbian ruler as prince (1389–1402) and Despot (court title), despot (1402–1427). He was also a diplomat, legislat ...
's
noble family Nobility is a social class found in many societies that have an aristocracy (class), aristocracy. It is normally appointed by and ranked immediately below Royal family, royalty. Nobility has often been an Estates of the realm, estate of the rea ...
in
Belgrade Belgrade is the Capital city, capital and List of cities in Serbia, largest city of Serbia. It is located at the confluence of the Sava and Danube rivers and at the crossroads of the Pannonian Basin, Pannonian Plain and the Balkan Peninsula. T ...
,
Serbia , image_flag = Flag of Serbia.svg , national_motto = , image_coat = Coat of arms of Serbia.svg , national_anthem = () , image_map = , map_caption = Location of Serbia (gree ...
, a couple of years after the city became the capital and defensive house of the Serbian Despotate. Nenadović's Tower () was built by
Jakov Nenadović Jakov Nenadović ( sr-cyr, Јаков Ненадовић; 1765–1836) was a Serbian voivode and politician who served as the Prime Minister of Serbia, prime minister of Serbia from 31 December 1810 to 22 January 1811. He was the first Serbian in ...
in 1813 in
Valjevo Valjevo (Serbian Cyrillic: Ваљево, ) is a List of cities in Serbia, city and the administrative center of the Kolubara District in western Serbia. According to the 2022 census, the city itself has a population of 56,145 while the city admini ...
,
Šumadija Šumadija ( sr-Cyrl, Шумадија, ) is a geographical region in the central part of Serbia. The area used to be heavily covered with forests, hence the name (from ''šuma'' 'forest'). The city of Kragujevac is the administrative center of t ...
. Initially it was used by rebels during the
First Serbian Uprising The First Serbian Uprising (; sr-Cyrl, Први српски устанак; ) was an uprising of Serbs in Orašac (Aranđelovac), Orašac against the Ottoman Empire from 14 February 1804 to 7 October 1813. The uprising began as a local revolt ...
of the
Serbian Revolution The Serbian Revolution ( / ') was a national uprising and constitutional change in Serbia that took place between 1804 and 1835, during which this territory evolved from an Sanjak of Smederevo, Ottoman province into a Revolutionary Serbia, reb ...
. Ottomans later used it as prison.


In Montenegro

Examples include the Ganić tower house in
Rožaje Rožaje ( Bosnian: ''Rožaje''; , ; , ) is a town located in the Northern Region of Montenegro, situated along the Ibar river. The town is the cultural center of the Bosniaks in Montenegro. As of 2023, the town has a population of 13,608 inhabi ...
.


See also

* ''
Culă A ''culă'' (plural: ''cule''; from Turkish ''kule'' "tower, turret") is a type of semi-fortified dwelling historically found in the Oltenia region of Romania, with notable examples also in Muntenia (in the counties of Argeș and Teleorman). Co ...
'', towers built by boyars in what is today Romania. *
Architecture of Kosovo The architecture of Kosovo dates back to the Neolithic, Neolithic period and includes the Chalcolithic, Copper, Bronze Age, Bronze and Iron Ages, Classical antiquity, Antiquity and the Middle Ages, Medieval period. It has been influenced by the pr ...
*
Architecture of Serbia The architecture of Serbia has a long, rich and diverse history. Some of the major European style from Roman to Postmodern are demonstrated, including renowned examples of Raška, Serbo-Byzantine with its revival, Morava, Baroque, Classical ...
* Architecture of Montenegro *
Architecture of Albania The architecture of Albania ( ) is a reflection of Albania's historical and cultural heritage. The country's architecture was influenced by its location within the Mediterranean Basin and progressed over the course of history as it was once inh ...


References


Sources

* * * * * * * * {{refend Stone houses *Balkans Buildings and structures of the Ottoman Empire Architecture in Albania Architecture in Bulgaria Architecture in Greece Architecture in Serbia Culture of the Ottoman Empire * Towers in Greece House styles