Lithuania proper refers to a region that existed within the

Grand Duchy of Lithuania The Grand Duchy of Lithuania was a sovereign state in northeastern Europe that existed from the 13th century, succeeding the Kingdom of Lithuania, to the late 18th century, when the territory was suppressed during the 1795 Partitions of Poland, ...

where the

Lithuanian language Lithuanian (, ) is an East Baltic languages, East Baltic language belonging to the Baltic languages, Baltic branch of the Indo-European language family. It is the language of Lithuanians and the official language of Lithuania as well as one of t ...

was spoken. The primary meaning is identical to the

Duchy of Lithuania The Duchy of Lithuania (; ) was a state-territorial formation of ethnic Lithuanians that existed from the 13th century to 1413. For most of its existence, it was a constituent part and a nucleus of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Other alternative ...

, a land around which the Grand Duchy of Lithuania evolved. The territory can be traced by

Catholic The Catholic Church (), also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the List of Christian denominations by number of members, largest Christian church, with 1.27 to 1.41 billion baptized Catholics Catholic Church by country, worldwid ...

Christian A Christian () is a person who follows or adheres to Christianity, a Monotheism, monotheistic Abrahamic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus in Christianity, Jesus Christ. Christians form the largest religious community in the wo ...

parishes A parish is a territorial entity in many Christian denominations, constituting a division within a diocese. A parish is under the pastoral care and clerical jurisdiction of a priest, often termed a parish priest, who might be assisted by one or ...

established in

pagan Paganism (, later 'civilian') is a term first used in the fourth century by early Christians for people in the Roman Empire who practiced polytheism, or ethnic religions other than Christianity, Judaism, and Samaritanism. In the time of the ...

Baltic Baltic may refer to: Peoples and languages *Baltic languages, a subfamily of Indo-European languages, including Lithuanian, Latvian and extinct Old Prussian *Balts (or Baltic peoples), ethnic groups speaking the Baltic languages and/or originatin ...

lands of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania subsequent to the

Christianization of Lithuania The Christianization of Lithuania () occurred in 1387, initiated by the Lithuanian royals Jogaila, King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania, and his cousin Vytautas the Great. It signified the official adoption of Catholic Christianity by Li ...

in 1387. Lithuania proper (''Lithuania Propria'') was always distinguished from the Ruthenian lands since the Lithuanians differed from the Ruthenians in their language and faith (Paganism in the beginning and Catholicism since 1387). The term in Latin was widely used during the Middle Ages and can be found in numerous historical maps until

World War I World War I or the First World War (28 July 1914 – 11 November 1918), also known as the Great War, was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War I, Allies (or Entente) and the Central Powers. Fighting to ...

. Lithuania proper is sometimes also called Lithuania Major, particularly in contrast with

Lithuania Minor Lithuania Minor (; ; ) or Prussian Lithuania (; ; ) is one of five ethnographic regions of Lithuania. It is a historical region of Prussia, where Prussian Lithuanians (or Lietuvininkai) lived, now located in Lithuania and the Kaliningrad Obla ...

. The Lithuanian geographer Kazys Pakštas wrote that Lithuania proper was known since the administrative division of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in 1566, when the name was assigned to the palatinates of

Vilnius Vilnius ( , ) is the capital of and List of cities in Lithuania#Cities, largest city in Lithuania and the List of cities in the Baltic states by population, most-populous city in the Baltic states. The city's estimated January 2025 population w ...

and

Trakai Trakai (; see Trakai#Names and etymology, names section for alternative and historic names) is a city and lake resort in Lithuania. It lies west of Vilnius, the capital of Lithuania or just from the administrative limits of the Lithuanian capi ...

. The name was used in documents and maps. Lithuania proper also included the

Duchy of Samogitia The Duchy of Samogitia (, , ) was an administrative unit of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania from 1422 (and from 1569, a member country of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth). Between 1422 and 1441 it was known as the Eldership of Samogitia. Si ...

Evolution of the term

Before the Grand Duchy of Lithuania

A few

confederations from the second half of the 12th century and the 13th century are known. Historians designate Lithuania proper (or the Land of Lithuania in a narrow sense) as a Lithuanian land that existed prior to

, near other lands: Land of Nalšia, Land of Deltuva, Land of Upytė. According to Henryk Łowmiański, Lithuania proper was in the nucleus of future Trakai Voivodeship between rivers: Nemunas,

Neris The river Neris () or Vilija (, ) rises in northern Belarus. It flows westward, passing through Vilnius (Lithuania's capital) and in the south-centre of that country it flows into the Nemunas (Neman) from the right bank, at Kaunas, as its ma ...

and

Merkys The Merkys () is a river in southern Lithuania and northern Belarus. It flows for through Belarus, along the Belarusian–Lithuanian border, and through Lithuania before joining the Nemunas from the right bank near Merkinė. The Merkys is m ...

. Tomas Baranauskas suggests that Lithuania proper was around Ašmena area, ethnic Lithuanian lands in modern

Belarus Belarus, officially the Republic of Belarus, is a landlocked country in Eastern Europe. It is bordered by Russia to the east and northeast, Ukraine to the south, Poland to the west, and Lithuania and Latvia to the northwest. Belarus spans an a ...

. According to Belarusian writer Mikola Yermalovich (although his reliability is questioned by scholars) Lithuania (, literary: Lithuania of chronicles) was in the upper Nemunas region, now in modern Belarus.

In the Grand Duchy of Lithuania

Scholars often use the term ''Lithuania proper'' to refer to lands inhabited by ethnic Lithuanians as opposed to lands controlled by the Grand Duchy of Lithuania inhabited by Ruthenians (ancestors of modern Belarusians and Ukrainians), Poles,

Lithuanian Jews {{Jews and Judaism sidebar , Population Litvaks ({{Langx, yi, ליטװאַקעס) or Lita'im ({{Langx, he, לִיטָאִים) are Jews who historically resided in the territory of the former Grand Duchy of Lithuania (covering present-day Lithuan ...

or many other nationalities. Already during the Grand Duchy times, Lithuania proper was a term designated to land where Lithuanians live. Administratively, it consisted of Vilnius Voivodeship, Trakai Voivodeship and the

. This division continued even after the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was partitioned. Thus, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was divided into the historical regions

Samogitia Samogitia, often known by its Lithuanian language, Lithuanian name ''Žemaitija'' (Samogitian language, Samogitian: ''Žemaitėjė''; see Samogitia#Etymology and alternative names, below for alternative and historical names) is one of the five ...

(literally ''Lower Lithuania''), Lithuania proper and

Ruthenia ''Ruthenia'' is an exonym, originally used in Medieval Latin, as one of several terms for Rus'. Originally, the term ''Rus' land'' referred to a triangular area, which mainly corresponds to the tribe of Polans in Dnieper Ukraine. ''Ruthenia' ...

Eastern part of Lithuania Propria

For centuries, eastern and southern lands of this territory, that had direct contacts with Ruthenia and Poland, initially inhabited by ethnic

Lithuanians Lithuanians () are a Balts, Baltic ethnic group. They are native to Lithuania, where they number around 2,378,118 people. Another two million make up the Lithuanian diaspora, largely found in countries such as the Lithuanian Americans, United Sta ...

were slowly Ruthenised, Polonised and Russified, and the Lithuanian-speaking territory shrunk. Eastern parts of Lithuania Propria suffered heavy population losses during the

Deluge A deluge is a large downpour of rain, often a flood. The Deluge refers to the flood narrative in the biblical book of Genesis. Deluge or Le Déluge may also refer to: History *Deluge (history), the Swedish and Russian invasion of the Polish-L ...

, and further on during the

Great Northern War In the Great Northern War (1700–1721) a coalition led by the Tsardom of Russia successfully contested the supremacy of the Swedish Empire in Northern Europe, Northern, Central Europe, Central and Eastern Europe. The initial leaders of the ant ...

and following plague epidemic in 1710–1711. Subsequent immigration of Ruthenians and Poles into these territories accelerated the process. A significant push to the de-Lithuanisation ensued when Lithuania became a part of the

Russian Empire The Russian Empire was an empire that spanned most of northern Eurasia from its establishment in November 1721 until the proclamation of the Russian Republic in September 1917. At its height in the late 19th century, it covered about , roughl ...

, and especially, after Lithuanian language books were forbidden to print in Latin letters in 1864. The process continued at the time of Polish rule, as Lithuanian language schools and libraries were closed, and later under

Soviet The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR), commonly known as the Soviet Union, was a List of former transcontinental countries#Since 1700, transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 until Dissolution of the Soviet ...

rule, as no Lithuanian schools were in these territories at all. Nowadays significant "islands" of Lithuanian-speaking people remain in eastern and southern parts of Lithuania proper (modern Belarus (see and in Grodno Region) and

Poland Poland, officially the Republic of Poland, is a country in Central Europe. It extends from the Baltic Sea in the north to the Sudetes and Carpathian Mountains in the south, bordered by Lithuania and Russia to the northeast, Belarus and Ukrai ...

(see Punskas in

Podlaskie Voivodeship Podlaskie Voivodeship ( ) is a Voivodeships of Poland, voivodeship in northeastern Poland. The name of the voivodeship refers to the historical region of Podlachia (in Polish, ''Podlasie''), and significant part of its territory corresponds to th ...

). Many people of these territories now speaking Belarusian still refer to themselves as Lithuanians. File:LithuaniaHistory.png, Map showing territorial changes of Lithuania from the 13th century to the present day File:Lithuanian language in the 16th century.png, Area of the

in the 16th century File:Litvania map 1570.png, Lithuania on a 1570 map File:Carte des Estats de Suede, de Dannemarq, et de Pologne; sur la Mer Baltique.jpg, Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1700 with Samogitia ('), Lithuania proper (') and Lithuanian White Ruthenia (') File:Nicolas de Fer, Les êtates de la couronne de Pologne (FL35472138 2572223).jpg, 1716 map of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth with Lithuania proper (Vraye Lithuanie) File:Regni map.jpg, Map of Kingdom of Poland and Grand Duchy of Lithuania in 1720 with Lithuania proper File:Karta över Polen, från 1700-talet - Skoklosters slott - 97979.tif, 18th century map of Poland–Lithuania with Lithuania proper File:Polonia and Lithuania at the time of Augustus II the Strong.jpg, 1733 map of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania at the time of

Augustus II the Strong Augustus II the Strong (12 May 1670 – 1 February 1733), was Elector of Saxony from 1694 as well as King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania from 1697 to 1706 and from 1709 until his death in 1733. He belonged to the Albertine branch of the H ...

with Lithuania proper File:Nicolas de Fer, Carte pour l'inteligence des affaires presente des Turcs des Tartares, de Hongrois, des Polonois, des Suedois, et des Moscovites (FL36380653 2622070).jpg, Map of northern, central and eastern Europe in 1737 with Lithuania proper (Lithuanie Particuliere) File:Mappa Geographica Regni Poloniae ex novissimis quotquot sunt mappis specialibus composita et al L.L. Stereographicae projectionis revocata a Tob. Mayero. . . . MDCCLXXIII.jpg, 1773 map of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth with Lithuania proper File:Poland map (1814).jpg, 1814 map of the partitioned Commonwealth with Lithuania proper (Duchy of Lithuania) File:Mapa Polski za panowania Jana III Sobieskiego wydana z okazji 200 rocznicy odsieczy wiedenskiej.jpg, 1883 map of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth with Lithuania proper (Litwa) File:Poland at the end of the 14th century.jpg, 1886 map of Poland and Lithuania during the 14th century with Lithuania proper (Litauen) File:C. 1560 Poland and Lithuania.jpg, 1888 map of Poland and Lithuania circa 1560, before the

Union of Lublin The Union of Lublin (; ) was signed on 1 July 1569 in Lublin, Poland, and created a single state, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, one of the largest countries in Europe at the time. It replaced the personal union of the Crown of the Kingd ...

(1569) with Lithuania proper File:Polen in den Grenzen vor 1660.jpg, 1892 map of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth between 1660 and 1667 with Lithuania proper File:439 of 'Geografija arba Żemēs Apraszymas. Pagal Geikie, Nalkowskį ir kitus. Sutaise szernas' (11290675693).jpg, 1899 map of Lithuania Proper (Lietuva tikroji) from a Lithuanian language atlas "Geografija arba Żemēs Apraszymas. Pagal Geikie, Nalkowskį ir kitus. Sutaise szernas". File:Poland in 1770s-1790s (partitions).jpg, 1910 map from the Historical Atlas of Poland with Lithuania proper (Litwa) File:Litauen BV044875323.jpg, 1918 ethnographic map of Balts by the Leibniz Institute for East and Southeast European Studies with Lithuania proper and Lithuanian Ruthenia

Modern developments

At the end of

, the

Council of Lithuania In the history of Lithuania, the Council of Lithuania (; ; ), after July 11, 1918, the State Council of Lithuania () was convened at the Vilnius Conference that took place between 18 and 23 September 1917. The twenty men who composed the c ...

declared an independent Lithuanian state re-established in the ethnic Lithuanian lands. After negotiations with Bolshevik Russia, a large part of Lithuania proper was acknowledged by

Soviets The Soviet people () were the citizens and nationals of the Soviet Union. This demonym was presented in the ideology of the country as the "new historical unity of peoples of different nationalities" (). Nationality policy in the Soviet Union ...

as part of the Lithuanian Republic by signing the Soviet-Lithuanian Treaty of 1920. Some of these territories were also claimed by the Second Republic of Poland. This led to series of military conflicts and eventually to

war War is an armed conflict between the armed forces of states, or between governmental forces and armed groups that are organized under a certain command structure and have the capacity to sustain military operations, or between such organi ...

. In 1943,

Antanas Smetona Antanas Smetona (; 10 August 1874 – 9 January 1944) was a Lithuanian intellectual, journalist and politician. He served as the first president of Lithuania from 1919 to 1920 and later as the authoritarian head of state from 1926 until the Occu ...

(in exile at the time) began working on a study "Lithuania Propria". The book was dedicated to the history of Lithuanian lands before Polonisation,

Russification Russification (), Russianisation or Russianization, is a form of cultural assimilation in which non-Russians adopt Russian culture and Russian language either voluntarily or as a result of a deliberate state policy. Russification was at times ...

, and

Germanisation Germanisation, or Germanization, is the spread of the German language, people, and culture. It was a central idea of German conservative thought in the 19th and the 20th centuries, when conservatism and ethnic nationalism went hand in hand. In l ...

, hoping that it would help to substantiate a claim to unreturned territories in a

peace conference A peace conference is a diplomatic meeting where representatives of states, armies, or other warring parties converge to end hostilities by negotiation and signing and ratifying a peace treaty. Significant international peace conferences in ...

after

World War II World War II or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War II, Allies and the Axis powers. World War II by country, Nearly all of the wo ...

. His work was left unfinished, and for a long time was available only as a manuscript and was virtually unknown. Currently the

Republic of Lithuania Lithuania, officially the Republic of Lithuania, is a country in the Baltic region of Europe. It is one of three Baltic states and lies on the eastern shore of the Baltic Sea, bordered by Latvia to the north, Belarus to the east and south, P ...

has no territorial claims.Claudio Carpini, ''Storia della Lituania: identità europea e cristiana di un popolo'', Città Nuova, 2007, , p.199

Notes

References

Sources

* * * * * {{Lithuania topics Historical regions in Lithuania Metropolitan or continental parts of states