Map of the world by the US Gov as of 2016

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to geography:

Geography Geography (from Ancient Greek ; combining 'Earth' and 'write', literally 'Earth writing') is the study of the lands, features, inhabitants, and phenomena of Earth. Geography is an all-encompassing discipline that seeks an understanding o ...

– study of Earth and its people.

Nature of geography

Geography as

* an

academic discipline An academic discipline or academic field is a subdivision of knowledge that is taught and researched at the college or university level. Disciplines are defined (in part) and recognized by the academic journals in which research is published, a ...

– a body of knowledge given to − or received by − a disciple (student); a branch or sphere of knowledge, or field of study, that an individual has chosen to specialize in. Modern geography is an all-encompassing discipline that seeks to understand the Earth and its human and natural complexities − not merely where objects are, but how they have changed and come to be. Geography has been called 'the world discipline'. * a field of science – widely recognized category of specialized expertise within science, and typically embodies its own terminology and nomenclature. This field will usually be represented by one or more scientific journals, where peer-reviewed research is published. There are many geography-related scientific journals. ** a

natural science Natural science or empirical science is one of the branches of science concerned with the description, understanding and prediction of natural phenomena, based on empirical evidence from observation and experimentation. Mechanisms such as peer ...

– field of academic scholarship that explores aspects of the natural environment (physical geography). ** a

social science Social science (often rendered in the plural as the social sciences) is one of the branches of science, devoted to the study of societies and the relationships among members within those societies. The term was formerly used to refer to the ...

– field of academic scholarship that explores aspects of human society (human geography). * an

interdisciplinary field Interdisciplinarity or interdisciplinary studies involves the combination of multiple academic disciplines into one activity (e.g., a research project). It draws knowledge from several fields such as sociology, anthropology, psychology, economi ...

– a field that crosses traditional boundaries between academic disciplines or schools of thought, as new needs and professions have emerged. Many of the branches of physical geography are also branches of Earth science

Branches of geography

As "the bridge between the human and physical sciences," geography is divided into two main branches: *human geography *physical geography Other branches include: *integrated geography *technical geography *regional geography

Physical geography

Physical geography Physical geography (also known as physiography) is one of the three main branches of geography. Physical geography is the branch of natural science which deals with the processes and patterns in the natural environment such as the atmosphere, h ...

– examines the natural environment and how the climate, vegetation and life, soil, water, and landforms are produced and interact.

Fields of physical geography

Geomorphology Geomorphology () is the scientific study of the origin and evolution of topographic and bathymetric features generated by physical, chemical or biological processes operating at or near Earth's surface. Geomorphologists seek to understand wh ...

– study of landforms and the processes that them, and more broadly, of the processes controlling the topography of any planet. It seeks to understand why landscapes look the way they do, to understand landform history and dynamics, and to predict future changes through field observation, physical experiments, and numerical modeling. *

Hydrology Hydrology () is the scientific study of the movement, distribution, and management of water on Earth and other planets, including the water cycle, water resources, and drainage basin sustainability. A practitioner of hydrology is called a hydro ...

– study water movement, distribution, and quality throughout the Earth, including the hydrologic cycle, water resources, and environmental watershed sustainability. **

Glaciology Glaciology (; ) is the scientific study of glaciers, or, more generally, ice and natural phenomena that involve ice. Glaciology is an interdisciplinary Earth science that integrates geophysics, geology, physical geography, geomorphology, clim ...

– study of glaciers, or more generally ice and natural phenomena that involve ice. **

Oceanography Oceanography (), also known as oceanology, sea science, ocean science, and marine science, is the scientific study of the ocean, including its physics, chemistry, biology, and geology. It is an Earth science, which covers a wide range of to ...

– studies a wide range of topics about oceans, including marine organisms and ecosystem dynamics; ocean currents, waves, and geophysical fluid dynamics; plate tectonics and the geology of the sea floor; and fluxes of various chemical substances and physical properties within the ocean and across its boundaries. *

Biogeography Biogeography is the study of the species distribution, distribution of species and ecosystems in geography, geographic space and through evolutionary history of life, geological time. Organisms and biological community (ecology), communities o ...

– study of species distribution spatially and temporally. Over areal

ecological Ecology () is the natural science of the relationships among living organisms and their environment. Ecology considers organisms at the individual, population, community, ecosystem, and biosphere levels. Ecology overlaps with the closely re ...

changes, it is also tied to the concepts of species and their past, or present living ' refugium', their survival locales, or their interim living sites. It aims to reveal where organisms live and at what abundance. *

Climatology Climatology (from Greek , ''klima'', "slope"; and , '' -logia'') or climate science is the scientific study of Earth's climate, typically defined as weather conditions averaged over a period of at least 30 years. Climate concerns the atmospher ...

– study of

climate Climate is the long-term weather pattern in a region, typically averaged over 30 years. More rigorously, it is the mean and variability of meteorological variables over a time spanning from months to millions of years. Some of the meteoro ...

, scientifically defined as weather conditions averaged over a period of

time Time is the continuous progression of existence that occurs in an apparently irreversible process, irreversible succession from the past, through the present, and into the future. It is a component quantity of various measurements used to sequ ...

. *

Meteorology Meteorology is the scientific study of the Earth's atmosphere and short-term atmospheric phenomena (i.e. weather), with a focus on weather forecasting. It has applications in the military, aviation, energy production, transport, agricultur ...

is the interdisciplinary scientific study of the atmosphere that focuses on weather processes and short-term forecasting (in contrast with climatology). *

Pedology Pedology (from Greek: πέδον, ''pedon'', "soil"; and λόγος, ''logos'', "study") is a discipline within soil science which focuses on understanding and characterizing soil formation, evolution, and the theoretical frameworks for modelin ...

– study of soils in their natural environment that deals with

pedogenesis Soil formation, also known as pedogenesis, is the process of soil genesis as regulated by the effects of place, environment, and history. Biogeochemical processes act to both create and destroy order (anisotropy) within soils. These alterations ...

soil morphology Soil morphology is the branch of soil science dedicated to the technical description of soil, particularly Physical properties of soil, physical properties including texture, color, structure, and consistence. Morphological evaluations of soil are ...

, and

soil classification Soil classification deals with the systematic categorization of soils based on distinguishing characteristics as well as criteria that dictate choices in use. Overview Soil classification is a dynamic subject, from the structure of the system, ...

. *

Palaeogeography Palaeogeography (or paleogeography) is the study of historical geography, generally physical landscapes. Palaeogeography can also include the study of human or cultural environments. When the focus is specifically on landforms, the term pale ...

– study of what geography was in times past, most often concerning the physical landscape and the human or cultural environment. *

Coastal geography Coastal geography is the study of the constantly changing region between the ocean and the land, incorporating both the physical geography (i.e. coastal geomorphology, climatology and oceanography) and the human geography (sociology and history) ...

– study of the dynamic interface between the ocean and the land, incorporating both the physical geography (i.e., coastal geomorphology, geology, and oceanography) and the human geography (sociology and history) of the coast. It involves understanding coastal weathering processes, particularly wave action, sediment movement, and weather, as well as how humans interact with the coast. *

Quaternary science Quaternary science is the subfield of geology which studies the Quaternary Period commonly known as the ice age. The Quaternary Period is a time period that started around 2.58 million years ago and continues today. This period is divided in ...

– focuses on the Quaternary period, which encompasses the last 2.6 million years, including the last ice age and the Holocene period. *

Landscape ecology Landscape ecology is the science of studying and improving relationships between ecological processes in the environment and particular ecosystems. This is done within a variety of landscape scales, development spatial patterns, and organizatio ...

– the relationship between spatial patterns of urban development and ecological processes on many landscape scales and organizational levels.Wu, J. and R. Hobbs (Eds). 2007. Key Topics in Landscape Ecology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Approaches of physical geography

Quantitative geography Quantitative geography is a subfield and methodological approach to geography that develops, tests, and uses scientific, mathematical, and statistical methods to analyze and model geographic phenomena and patterns. It aims to explain and predict t ...

–

Quantitative research Quantitative research is a research strategy that focuses on quantifying the collection and analysis of data. It is formed from a deductive approach where emphasis is placed on the testing of theory, shaped by empiricist and positivist philoso ...

tools and methods applied to geography. See also the

quantitative revolution In geography, the quantitative revolution (QR) was a paradigm shift that sought to develop a more rigorous and systematic methodology for the discipline. It came as a response to the inadequacy of regional geography to explain general spatial d ...

. *

Systems approach Systems thinking is a way of making sense of the complexity of the world by looking at it in terms of wholes and relationships rather than by splitting it down into its parts.Anderson, Virginia, & Johnson, Lauren (1997). ''Systems Thinking Ba ...

–

Human geography

Human geography Human geography or anthropogeography is the branch of geography which studies spatial relationships between human communities, cultures, economies, and their interactions with the environment, examples of which include urban sprawl and urban ...

– one of the two main subfields of geography is the study of human use and understanding of the world and the processes that have affected it. Human geography broadly differs from physical geography in that it focuses on the

built environment The term built environment refers to human-made conditions and is often used in architecture, landscape architecture, urban planning, public health, sociology, and anthropology, among others. These curated spaces provide the setting for human ac ...

and how space is created, viewed, and managed by humans, as well as the influence humans have on the space they occupy.

Fields of human geography

Cultural geography Cultural geography is a subfield within human geography. Though the first traces of the study of different nations and cultures on Earth can be dated back to ancient geographers such as Ptolemy or Strabo, cultural geography as academic study fir ...

– study of cultural products and norms and their variations across and relations to spaces and places. It focuses on describing and analyzing the ways language, religion, economy, government, and other cultural phenomena vary or remain constant from one place to another and on explaining how humans function spatially. **

Children's geographies Children's geographies is an area of study within human geography and childhood studies which involves researching the places and spaces of children's lives. Context Children's geographies is the branch of human geography which deals with the stu ...

– study of places and spaces of children's lives, characterized experientially, politically and ethically. Children's geographies rest on the idea that children as a social group share certain characteristics that are experientially, politically, and ethically significant and worthy of study. The pluralization in the title is intended to imply that children's lives will be markedly different in differing times and places and in differing circumstances such as gender, family, and class. The range of foci within children's geographies includes: *** Children and the city *** Children and the countryside *** Children and technology *** Children and nature, *** Children and globalization *** Methodologies of researching children's worlds *** Ethics of researching children's worlds ***

Otherness of childhood The otherness of childhood describes the substantial differences between the lived worlds of children and adults, and the otherness of the former from the perspective of the latter. These differences are suggested to emerge from complex outcomes of ...

Animal geographies Animal geography is a subfield of the nature–society/human–environment branch of geography as well as a part of the larger, interdisciplinary umbrella of human–animal studies (HAS). Animal geography is defined as the study of "the complex en ...

– studies the spaces and places occupied by animals in human culture because social life and space are heavily populated by animals of many different kinds and in many differing ways (e.g., farm animals, pets, wild animals in the city). Another impetus that has influenced the development of the field is ecofeminist and other environmentalist viewpoints on nature-society relations (including questions of animal welfare and rights). **

Language geography Language geography is the branch of human geography that studies the geographic distribution of language(s) or its constituent elements. Linguistic geography can also refer to studies of how people talk about the landscape. For example, toponym ...

– studies the geographic distribution of language or its constituent elements. There are two principal fields of study within the geography of language: **# Geography of languages – deals with the distribution through history and space of languages, **#

Linguistic geography Language geography is the branch of human geography that studies the geographic distribution of language(s) or its constituent elements. Linguistic geography can also refer to studies of how people talk about the landscape. For example, toponym ...

– deals with regional linguistic variations within languages.Trudgill, P. (1983). ''On dialect: social and geographical perspectives.'' Oxford: Basil Blackwell; New York: New York University Press.Trudgill, P. (1975). ''Linguistic geography and geographical linguistics.'' Progress in Geography 7, 227-52Withers, Charles W.J.

981 Year 981 ( CMLXXXI) was a common year starting on Saturday of the Julian calendar. Events By place Europe * Spring – Emperor Otto II (the Red) leads the imperial court to Rome, making the city his imperial capital, and receiv ...

(1993). Johnson, R.J. ''The Dictionary of Human Geography'', Gregory, Derek; Smith, David M., Second edition, Oxford: Blackwell, 252-3. **

Sexuality and space Sexuality and space is a field of study within human geography. The phrase encompasses all relationships and interactions between human sexuality, space and place, themes studied within cultural geography, i.e., environmental and architectural ps ...

– encompasses all relationships and interactions between human sexuality, space, and place, including the geographies of LGBT residence, public sex environments, sites of queer resistance, global sexualities, sex tourism, the geographies of prostitution and adult entertainment, use of sexualised locations in the arts, and sexual citizenship. ** Religion geography – study of the influence of geography, i.e., place and space, on religious belief. *

Development geography Development geography is a branch of geography which refers to the standard of living and its quality of life of its human inhabitants. In this context, development is a process of change that affects peoples' lives. It may involve an improvement ...

– study of the Earth's geography concerning its inhabitants' standard of living and quality of life. Measures development by looking at economic, political, and social factors and seeks to understand both the geographical causes and consequences of varying development, in part by comparing More Economically Developed Countries (MEDCs) with Less Economically Developed Countries (LEDCs). *

Economic geography Economic geography is the subfield of human geography that studies economic activity and factors affecting it. It can also be considered a subfield or method in economics. Economic geography takes a variety of approaches to many different topi ...

– study of the location, distribution, and spatial organization of economic activities worldwide. Subjects of interest include but are not limited to the location of industries, economies of agglomeration (also known as "linkages"), transportation, international trade and development, real estate, gentrification, ethnic economies, gendered economies, core-periphery theory, the economics of urban form, the relationship between the environment and the economy (tying into a long history of geographers studying culture-environment interaction), and globalization. **

Marketing geography In marketing, geomarketing (also called marketing geography) is a discipline that uses geolocation (geographic information) in the process of planning and implementation of marketing activities.

– a discipline within marketing analysis that uses geolocation (geographic information) in the process of planning and implementation of marketing activities."Recommending Social Events from Mobile Phone Location Data"
Daniele Quercia, et al., ICDM 2010 It can be used in any aspect of the marketing mix – the product, price, promotion, or place (geo-targeting). **

Transportation geography Transport geography or transportation geography is a branch of geography that investigates the movement and connections between people, goods and information on the Earth's surface. Aims and scope Transportation geography detects, describes, and ...

– branch of economic geography that investigates spatial interactions between people, freight, and information. It studies humans and their use of vehicles or other modes of traveling and how flows of finished goods and raw materials service markets. *

Health geography Health geography is the application of geographical information, perspectives, and methods to the study of health, disease, and health care. Medical geography, a sub-discipline of, or sister field of health geography, Oxford Bibliographies entry ...

– application of geographical information, perspectives, and methods to the study of health, disease, and health care, to provide a spatial understanding of a population's health, the distribution of disease in an area, and the environment's effect on health and disease. It also deals with accessibility to health care and spatial distribution of health care providers. **

Time geography Time geography or time-space geography is an evolving transdisciplinary perspective on spatial and temporal processes and events such as social interaction, ecological interaction, social and environmental change, and biographies of individuals. ...

– study of the temporal factor on spatial human activities within the following constraints: # Authority - limits of accessibility to certain places or domains placed on individuals by owners or authorities # Capability - limitations on the movement of individuals based on their nature. For example, movement is restricted by biological factors, such as the need for food, drink, and sleep # Coupling - restraint of an individual, anchoring him or her to a location while interacting with other individuals to complete a task *

Historical geography Historical geography is the branch of geography that studies the ways in which geographic phenomena have changed over time. In its modern form, it is a synthesizing discipline which shares both topical and methodological similarities with histor ...

– the study of the human, physical, fictional, theoretical, and "real" geographies of the past. It seeks to determine how cultural features of various societies across the planet emerged and evolved by understanding how a place or region changes through time, including how people have interacted with their environment and created the cultural landscape. *

Political geography Political geography is concerned with the study of both the spatially uneven outcomes of political processes and the ways in which political processes are themselves affected by spatial structures. Conventionally, for the purposes of analysis, ...

– study of the spatially uneven outcomes of political processes and how political processes are themselves affected by spatial structures. The inter-relationships between people, state, and territory. **

Electoral geography Electoral geography is the analysis of the methods, the behavior, and the results of elections in the context of geography, geographic space and using geographical techniques. Specifically, it is an examination of the dual interaction in whic ...

– study of the relationship between election results and the regions they affect (such as the environmental impact of voting decisions), and of the effects of regional factors upon voting behavior. **

Geopolitics Geopolitics () is the study of the effects of Earth's geography on politics and international relations. Geopolitics usually refers to countries and relations between them, it may also focus on two other kinds of State (polity), states: ''de fac ...

– analysis of geography, history, and social science concerning spatial politics and patterns at various scales, ranging from the level of the state to international. **

Strategic geography Strategic geography is concerned with the control of, or access to, spatial areas that affect the security and prosperity of nations. Spatial areas that concern strategic geography change with human needs and development. This field is a subset ...

– concerned with the control of, or access to, spatial areas that affect the security and prosperity of nations. **

Military geography Military geography is a sub-field of geography that is used by the military, as well as academics and politicians, to understand the geopolitics, geopolitical sphere through the military lens. To accomplish these ends, military geographers consi ...

– applying geographic tools, information, and techniques to solve military problems in peacetime or war. *

Population geography Population geography is the study of the distribution, composition, migration, and growth of human populations in relation to the geographic characteristics of specific area. It focuses on how populations are distributed across space, the facto ...

– study of how spatial variations in the distribution, composition, migration, and growth of populations are related to the nature of places. *

Tourism geography Tourism geography is the study of travel and tourism, as an industry and as a social and cultural activity. Tourism geography covers a wide range of interests including the environmental impact of tourism, the geographies of tourism and leisure ...

– study of travel and tourism, as an industry and as a social and cultural activity, and their effect on places, including the

environmental impact of tourism Tourism has a significant impact on destinations, influencing their economy, culture, environment, and communities. Tourism positively affects many parties in society but can also be detrimental in certain situations. In general, tourism positi ...

, the geographies of tourism and leisure economies, answering tourism industry and management concerns and the sociology of tourism and locations of tourism. *

Urban geography Urban geography is the subdiscipline of geography that derives from a study of cities and urban processes. Urban geographers and urbanists examine various aspects of urban life and the built environment. Scholars, activists, and the public have ...

– the study of urban areas, in terms of concentration, infrastructure, economy, and environmental impacts.

Approaches of human geography

* * * * * * * * – *

Qualitative geography Qualitative geography is a subfield and methodological approach to geography focusing on Nominal category, nominal data, descriptive information, and the subjective and interpretive aspects of how humans experience and perceive the world. Often, ...

–

qualitative research Qualitative research is a type of research that aims to gather and analyse non-numerical (descriptive) data in order to gain an understanding of individuals' social reality, including understanding their attitudes, beliefs, and motivation. This ...

tools and methods applied to geography.

Integrated geography

Integrated geography Integrated geography (also referred to as integrative geography, environmental geography or human–environment geography) is where the branches of human geography and physical geography overlap to describe and explain the spatial aspects of inte ...

– branch of geography that describes the spatial aspects of interactions between humans and the natural world. It requires an understanding of the dynamics of geology, meteorology, hydrology, biogeography, ecology, and geomorphology, as well as the ways in which human societies conceptualize the environment.

Technical geography

Technical geography Technical geography is the branch of geography that involves using, studying, and creating tools to obtain, analyze, interpret, understand, and communicate spatial information. The other branches of geography, most commonly limited to human geo ...

– branch of geography and the discipline of studying, developing, and applying methods to gather, store, process, and deliver geographic or spatially referenced information. It is a widespread interdisciplinary field that includes the tools and techniques used in land surveying, remote sensing, cartography, Geographic Information Systems (GIS), Global Navigation Satellite Systems, photogrammetry, and related forms of earth mapping. ** Cyber geography – study of the physical network of broadband cables

Fields contributing to technical geography

* * * * * * * *

Global navigation satellite system A satellite navigation or satnav system is a system that uses satellites to provide autonomous geopositioning. A satellite navigation system with global coverage is termed global navigation satellite system (GNSS). , four global systems are op ...

s represented by – Any system that uses satellite radio signals to provide autonomous geo-spatial positioning ** * * * * *

Regional geography

Regional geography Regional geography is one of the major traditions of geography. It focuses on the interaction of different cultural and natural geofactors in a specific land or landscape, while its counterpart, systematic geography, concentrates on a specific geo ...

– study of world regions. Attention is paid to unique characteristics of a particular region such as its natural elements, human elements, and regionalization which covers the techniques of delineating space into regions. Regional geography breaks down into the study of specific regions.

Region In geography, regions, otherwise referred to as areas, zones, lands or territories, are portions of the Earth's surface that are broadly divided by physical characteristics (physical geography), human impact characteristics (human geography), and ...

– an area, defined by physical characteristics, human characteristics, or functional characteristics. The term is used in various ways among the different branches of geography. A region can be seen as a collection of smaller units, such as a country and its political divisions, or as one part of a larger whole, as in a country on a continent.

Continents

Continent A continent is any of several large geographical regions. Continents are generally identified by convention (norm), convention rather than any strict criteria. A continent could be a single large landmass, a part of a very large landmass, as ...

– one of several large

landmass A landmass, or land mass, is a large region or area of land that is in one piece and not noticeably broken up by oceans. The term is often used to refer to lands surrounded by an ocean or sea, such as a continent or a large island. In the fiel ...

es on

Earth Earth is the third planet from the Sun and the only astronomical object known to Planetary habitability, harbor life. This is enabled by Earth being an ocean world, the only one in the Solar System sustaining liquid surface water. Almost all ...

. They are generally identified by convention rather than any specific criteria, but seven areas are commonly regarded as continents. They are: ::''1.'' Africa ( outline) – ::''2.''

Antarctica Antarctica () is Earth's southernmost and least-populated continent. Situated almost entirely south of the Antarctic Circle and surrounded by the Southern Ocean (also known as the Antarctic Ocean), it contains the geographic South Pole. ...

– ::''3.'' Australia ( outline) – : The Americas: ::''4.'' North America ( outline) – ::''5.'' South America ( outline) – : Eurasia: ::''6.'' Europe ( outline) – ::''7.'' Asia ( outline) –

= Subregions

Subregion A subregion is a part of a larger geographical region or continent. Cardinal directions are commonly used to define subregions. There are many criteria for creating systems of subregions; this article is focusing on the United Nations geoschem ...

(list)

Biogeographic regions

= Biogeographic realm

= The

World Wildlife Fund The World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) is a Swiss-based international non-governmental organization founded in 1961 that works in the field of wilderness preservation and the reduction of human impact on the environment. It was formerly named the ...

(WWF) developed a system of eight

biogeographic realm A biogeographic realm is the broadest biogeography, biogeographic division of Earth's land surface, based on distributional patterns of terrestrial animal, terrestrial organisms. They are subdivided into bioregions, which are further subdivid ...

s (ecozones): *

Nearctic The Nearctic realm is one of the eight biogeographic realms constituting the Earth's land surface. The Nearctic realm covers most of North America, including Greenland, Central Florida, and the highlands of Mexico. The parts of North America ...

22.9 mil. km² (including most of North America) *

Palearctic The Palearctic or Palaearctic is a biogeographic realm of the Earth, the largest of eight. Confined almost entirely to the Eastern Hemisphere, it stretches across Europe and Asia, north of the foothills of the Himalayas, and North Africa. Th ...

54.1 mil. km² (including the bulk of

Eurasia Eurasia ( , ) is a continental area on Earth, comprising all of Europe and Asia. According to some geographers, Physical geography, physiographically, Eurasia is a single supercontinent. The concept of Europe and Asia as distinct continents d ...

and

North Africa North Africa (sometimes Northern Africa) is a region encompassing the northern portion of the African continent. There is no singularly accepted scope for the region. However, it is sometimes defined as stretching from the Atlantic shores of t ...

) *

Afrotropic The Afrotropical realm is one of the Earth's eight biogeographic realms. It includes Sub-Saharan Africa, the southern Arabian Peninsula, the island of Madagascar, and the islands of the western Indian Ocean. It was formerly known as the Ethiopi ...

22.1 mil. km² (including

Sub-Saharan Africa Sub-Saharan Africa is the area and regions of the continent of Africa that lie south of the Sahara. These include Central Africa, East Africa, Southern Africa, and West Africa. Geopolitically, in addition to the list of sovereign states and ...

) *

Indomalaya The Indomalayan realm is one of the eight biogeographic realms. It extends across most of South and Southeast Asia and into the southern parts of East Asia. Also called the Oriental realm by biogeographers, Indomalaya spreads all over the Ind ...

7.5 mil. km² (including the South Asian subcontinent and

Southeast Asia Southeast Asia is the geographical United Nations geoscheme for Asia#South-eastern Asia, southeastern region of Asia, consisting of the regions that are situated south of China, east of the Indian subcontinent, and northwest of the Mainland Au ...

) *

Australasia Australasia is a subregion of Oceania, comprising Australia, New Zealand (overlapping with Polynesia), and sometimes including New Guinea and surrounding islands (overlapping with Melanesia). The term is used in a number of different context ...

7.7 mil. km² (including Australia,

New Guinea New Guinea (; Hiri Motu: ''Niu Gini''; , fossilized , also known as Papua or historically ) is the List of islands by area, world's second-largest island, with an area of . Located in Melanesia in the southwestern Pacific Ocean, the island is ...

, and neighboring islands). The northern boundary of this zone is known as the

Wallace line The Wallace Line or Wallace's Line is a faunal boundary line drawn in 1859 by the British naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace and named by the English biologist Thomas Henry Huxley. It separates the biogeographic realms of Asia and 'Wallacea', a ...

. *

Neotropic The Neotropical realm is one of the eight biogeographic realms constituting Earth's land surface. Physically, it includes the tropical terrestrial ecoregions of the Americas and the entire South American temperate zone. Definition In biogeogra ...

19.0 mil. km² (including

South America South America is a continent entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a considerably smaller portion in the Northern Hemisphere. It can also be described as the southern Subregion#Americas, subregion o ...

and the

Caribbean The Caribbean ( , ; ; ; ) is a region in the middle of the Americas centered around the Caribbean Sea in the Atlantic Ocean, North Atlantic Ocean, mostly overlapping with the West Indies. Bordered by North America to the north, Central America ...

) *

Oceania Oceania ( , ) is a region, geographical region including Australasia, Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. Outside of the English-speaking world, Oceania is generally considered a continent, while Mainland Australia is regarded as its co ...

1.0 mil. km² (including

Polynesia Polynesia ( , ) is a subregion of Oceania, made up of more than 1,000 islands scattered over the central and southern Pacific Ocean. The indigenous people who inhabit the islands of Polynesia are called Polynesians. They have many things in ...

Fiji Fiji, officially the Republic of Fiji, is an island country in Melanesia, part of Oceania in the South Pacific Ocean. It lies about north-northeast of New Zealand. Fiji consists of an archipelago of more than 330 islands—of which about ...

and

Micronesia Micronesia (, ) is a subregion of Oceania, consisting of approximately 2,000 small islands in the Northwestern Pacific Ocean. It has a close shared cultural history with three other island regions: Maritime Southeast Asia to the west, Poly ...

) *

Antarctic The Antarctic (, ; commonly ) is the polar regions of Earth, polar region of Earth that surrounds the South Pole, lying within the Antarctic Circle. It is antipodes, diametrically opposite of the Arctic region around the North Pole. The Antar ...

0.3 mil. km² (including

= Ecoregions

Ecoregion An ecoregion (ecological region) is an ecological and geographic area that exists on multiple different levels, defined by type, quality, and quantity of environmental resources. Ecoregions cover relatively large areas of land or water, and c ...

Biogeographic realms are further divided into ecoregions. The World has over 800

terrestrial ecoregion An ecoregion (ecological region) is an ecological and geographic area that exists on multiple different levels, defined by type, quality, and quantity of environmental resources. Ecoregions cover relatively large areas of land or water, and c ...

s. ''See

Lists of ecoregions by country __NOTOC__ A * List of ecoregions in Afghanistan * List of ecoregions in Albania * List of ecoregions in Algeria * List of ecoregions in Andorra * List of ecoregions in Angola * List of ecoregions in Argentina * List of ecoregions in Armenia * L ...

.''

Geography of the political divisions of the World

Geography of Africa Africa is a continent comprising 63 political territories, representing the largest of the great southward projections from the main mass of Earth's surface. Within its regular outline, it comprises an area of , excluding adjacent islands. Its h ...

( Outline) ** West Africa#Geography and climate *** Geography of Benin ( Outline) ***

Geography of Burkina Faso Burkina Faso (formerly Upper Volta) is a landlocked Sahel country that shares borders with six nations. It lies between the Sahara desert and the Gulf of Guinea, south of the loop of the Niger River, mostly between latitudes 9° and 15°N (a ...

( Outline) ***

Geography of Cape Verde Cape Verde (formally, the Republic of Cabo Verde) is a group of arid Atlantic islands which are home to distinct communities of plants, birds, and reptiles. Location and description The Cape Verde Islands are located in the mid-Atlantic Ocean ...

( Outline) *** Geography of Côte d'Ivoire ( Outline) *** Geography of Gambia ( Outline) ***

Geography of Ghana Ghana is a West African country in Africa, along the Gulf of Guinea. Ghana encompasses plains, low hills, rivers, Lake Volta, the world's largest artificial lake, Dodi Island and Bobowasi Island on the south Atlantic Ocean coast of Ghana. Ghana ...

( Outline) ***

Geography of Guinea Guinea is a country on the coast of West Africa and is bordered by Guinea-Bissau, Senegal, Mali, Ivory Coast, Liberia, and Sierra Leone. Guinea is divided into four geographic regions: Maritime Guinea (Lower Guinea) a coastal plain running nor ...

( Outline) *** Geography of Guinea-Bissau ( Outline) *** Geography of Liberia ( Outline) ***

Geography of Mali Mali is a landlocked nation in West Africa, located southwest of Algeria, extending south-west from the southern Sahara Desert through the Sahel to the Sudanian savanna zone. Mali's size is 1,240,192 square kilometers. Desert or semi-desert ...

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Geography of Mauritania Mauritania, a country in the Western Region of the continent of Africa, is generally flat, its 1,030,700 square kilometres forming vast, arid plains broken by occasional ridges and clifflike outcroppings. Mauritania is the world’s largest ...

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Geography of Niger Niger is a landlocked nation in West Africa located along the border between the Sahara and Sub-Saharan regions. Its geographic coordinates are longitude 16°N and latitude 8°E. Area :* Total: :**''country rank in the world:'' 21st :* Land: ...

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Geography of Nigeria Nigeria is a country in West Africa. It shares land borders with the Republic of Benin to the west, Chad and Cameroon to the east, and Niger to the north. Its coast lies on the Gulf of Guinea in the south and it borders Lake Chad to the north ...

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Geography of Senegal Senegal is a coastal West African nation located 14th parallel north, 14 degrees north of the equator and 14th meridian west, 14 degrees west of the Prime Meridian. The country's total area is 196,190 km2 of which 192,000 km2 is la ...

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Geography of Sierra Leone :Sierra Leone is a country in West Africa with a North Atlantic Ocean coastline to the west. It lies on the African Plate. The country's main geographical features include wooded hill country, an upland plateau, and mountains in the east. The ...

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Geography of Togo Togo is a small Sub-Saharan state, comprising a long strip of land in West Africa. Togo's geographic coordinates are a latitude of 8° north and a longitude of 1°10′ east. It is bordered by three countries: Benin to the east, with of borde ...

( Outline) ** North Africa#Geography ***

Geography of Algeria Algeria comprises of land, more than 80% of which is desert, in North Africa, between Morocco and Tunisia. It is the largest country in Africa. Its Arabic name, Al Jazair (the islands), is believed to derive from the rocky islands along the ...

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Geography of Egypt The geography of Egypt relates to two regions: North Africa and West Asia. Egypt has coastlines on the Mediterranean Sea, the River Nile, and the Red Sea. Egypt borders Libya to the west, Palestine and Israel to the east and Sudan to the sou ...

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Geography of Libya Libya is the fourth largest country in Africa and the seventeenth largest country in the world. It is on the Mediterranean with Egypt to the east, Tunisia to the northwest, Algeria to the west, Niger and Chad to the south, and Sudan to the south ...

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Geography of Morocco Morocco is the northwesternmost country which spans from the Mediterranean Sea and Atlantic Ocean on the north and the west respectively, into large mountainous areas in the interior, to the Sahara desert in the far south. Morocco is a Norther ...

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Geography of Sudan Sudan is located in Northeast Africa. It is bordered by Egypt to the north, the Red Sea to the northeast, Eritrea and Ethiopia to the east, South Sudan to the south, the Central African Republic to the southwest, Chad to the west and Libya to t ...

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Geography of Tunisia Tunisia is a country in Northern Africa, bordering the Mediterranean Sea, having a western border with Algeria (965 km) and south-eastern border with Libya (459 km) where the width of land tapers to the south-west into the Sahara. The ...

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Geography of Western Sahara Western Sahara is a territory in Northern Africa, bordered by the North Atlantic Ocean, Morocco proper, Algeria (Tindouf region), and Mauritania. Geographic coordinates: Size of Western Sahara The size of Western Sahara, a region locat ...

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Central Africa Central Africa (French language, French: ''Afrique centrale''; Spanish language, Spanish: ''África central''; Portuguese language, Portuguese: ''África Central'') is a subregion of the African continent comprising various countries accordin ...

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Geography of Angola Geography (from Ancient Greek ; combining 'Earth' and 'write', literally 'Earth writing') is the study of the lands, features, inhabitants, and phenomena of Earth. Geography is an all-encompassing discipline that seeks an understanding o ...

( Outline) *** Geography of Burundi ( Outline) ***

Geography of Cameroon At , Cameroon is the world's 53rd largest country. It is slightly larger than the nation of Sweden and the US state of California. It is comparable in size to Papua New Guinea. Cameroon's landmass is , with of water. The country is located i ...

( Outline) *** Geography of Central African Republic ( Outline) ***

Geography of Chad Chad is one of the 47 landlocked countries in the world and is located in North Central Africa, measuring , nearly twice the size of France and slightly more than three times the size of California. Most of its ethnically and linguistically di ...

( Outline) *** Geography of Democratic Republic of the Congo ( Outline) *** Geography of Equatorial Guinea ( Outline) ***

Geography of Gabon Gabon is a country in Central Africa, lying along the Atlantic Ocean, just south of the Bight of Biafra. Area and borders ; Area: :* Total: 267,668 km² :**''country rank in the world:'' 76th/77th :* Land: 257,670 km² :* Water: 10,000 km² ...

( Outline) *** Geography of Republic of the Congo ( Outline) ***

Geography of Rwanda Rwanda is located in East Africa, to the east of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, at the co-ordinates . At , Rwanda is the world's 149th-largest country. It is comparable in size to Haiti or the state of Massachusetts in the United States. ...

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Geography of São Tomé and Príncipe São Tomé and Príncipe is a small island country composed of an archipelago located in the Gulf of Guinea of the equatorial Atlantic Ocean. The nation's main islands are São Tomé Island and Príncipe Island, for which the country is named. ...

( Outline) ** East Africa#Geography and climate *** Geography of Burundi ( Outline) *** Geography of Comoros ( Outline) ***

Geography of Djibouti Djibouti is a country in the Horn of Africa. It is bordered by Eritrea in the north, Ethiopia in the west and south, and Somalia in the southeast. To the east is its coastline on the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden. Rainfall is sparse, and most of ...

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Geography of Eritrea Eritrea is located in the Horn of Africa and is bordered on the northeast and east by the Red Sea, on the west and northwest by Sudan, on the south by Ethiopia, and on the southeast by Djibouti. The country has a high central plateau that varies ...

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Geography of Ethiopia Ethiopia is located in the Horn of Africa. It is bordered by Eritrea to the north, Djibouti and Somalia to the east, Sudan and South Sudan to the west, and Kenya to the south. Ethiopia has a high central plateau, the Abyssinian Highlands (or Et ...

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Geography of Kenya The Geography of Kenya is diverse, varying amongst its 47 counties. Kenya has a coastline on the Indian Ocean, which contains swamps of East African mangroves. Inland are broad plains and numerous hills. Kenya borders South Sudan to the ...

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Geography of Madagascar Madagascar is a large island in the Indian Ocean located off the eastern coast of Southern Africa, east of Mozambique. It has a total area of with of land and of water. Madagascar is the fourth-largest island in the world. The highest poin ...

( Outline) *** Geography of Malawi ( Outline) ***

Geography of Mauritius Mauritius is an island off Africa's southeast coast located in the Indian Ocean, east of Madagascar. It is geologically located within the Somali Plate. Statistics Area (includes Agaléga, Cargados Carajos ( St. Brandon), and Rodrigues): ' ...

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Geography of Mozambique The geography of Mozambique consists mostly of coastal lowlands with uplands in its centre and high plateaus in the northwest. There are also mountains in the western portion. The country is located on the east coast of southern Africa, dir ...

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Geography of Seychelles Seychelles is a small island country east of the African continent located in the Sea of Zanj due north of Madagascar, with Antsiranana as its nearest foreign city. Seychelles lies between approximately 4ºS and 10ºS and 46ºE and 54ºE. The na ...

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Geography of Somalia Somalia is a country located in the Horn of Africa which officially consists of the intra-46th meridian east territory, the seven federal member states, namely Galmudug, Hirshabelle, Jubaland, South West State of Somalia, South West, Puntland, a ...

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Geography of Tanzania Tanzania comprises many lakes, national parks, and Africa's highest point, Mount Kilimanjaro (). Northeast Tanzania is mountainous, while the central area is part of a large plateau covered in grasslands. The country also contains the south ...

( Outline) *** Geography of Uganda ( Outline) ** Southern Africa#Geography ***

Geography of Botswana Botswana is a landlocked country located in Southern Africa, north of South Africa. Botswana occupies an area of , of which are land. Botswana has land boundaries of combined length , of which the constituent boundaries are shared with Namib ...

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Geography of Lesotho Lesotho is a mountainous, landlocked country located in Southern Africa. It is an enclave, surrounded by South Africa. The total length of the country's borders is . Lesotho covers an area of around , of which a negligible percentage is covered w ...

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Geography of Namibia At , Namibia is the world's thirty-fourth largest country. After Mongolia, Namibia is the second least densely populated country in the world (). Namibia got its name from the Namib desert that stretches along the coast of the Atlantic. It ...

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Geography of South Africa South Africa occupies the southern tip of Africa, its coastline stretching more than from the desert border with Namibia on the Atlantic (western) coast southwards around the tip of Africa and then northeast to the border with Mozambique on ...

( Outline) *** Geography of Swaziland ( Outline) *** Geography of Zambia ( Outline) ***

Geography of Zimbabwe Zimbabwe is a landlocked country in southern Africa lying north of the Tropic of Capricorn. During summer, the whole country experiences warm temperatures as a result of the sun being directly overhead. It straddles an extensive high inland ...

( Outline) ** Dependencies in Africa *** Geography of British Indian Ocean Territory ( Outline) (UK) *** Geography of Mayotte ( Outline) (France) ***

Geography of Réunion Réunion is an island in Southern Africa, in the Indian Ocean, east of Madagascar. It is an overseas region of France. The total area of the island is 2,512 km2, of which 10 km2 is water. The island has a coastline of 207 km. ...

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Geography of Saint Helena Saint Helena is an island in the South Atlantic Ocean, about midway between South America and Africa. St Helena has a land area of 122 square kilometres and is part of the territory of Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha which includes ...

( Outline) (UK) *** Canary Islands#Geography ( Outline) (Spain) *** Geography of Ceuta ( Outline) (Spain) ***

Geography of Madeira Madeira ( ; ), officially the Autonomous Region of Madeira (), is an autonomous region of Portugal. It is an archipelago situated in the North Atlantic Ocean, in the region of Macaronesia, just under north of the Canary Islands, Spain, wes ...

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Geography of Melilla Melilla (, ; ) is an autonomous city of Spain on the North African coast. It lies on the eastern side of the Cape Three Forks, bordering Morocco and facing the Mediterranean Sea. It has an area of . It was part of the Province of Málaga un ...

( Outline) (Spain) *** Geography of Socotra ( Outline) (Yemen) *** Geography of Puntland ( Outline) ***

Geography of Somaliland Somaliland is an list of states with limited recognition, unrecognised sovereign state in the Horn of Africa, internationally considered to be part of Somalia. Somaliland is located in the East Africa, East African sub-continent between the ...

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Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic The Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (SADR), also known as the Sahrawi Republic and Western Sahara, is a partially recognized state in the western Maghreb, which claims the non-self-governing territory of Western Sahara, but controls only ...

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Geography of Antarctica The geography of Antarctica is dominated by its south polar location and, thus, by ice. The Antarctic continent, located in the Earth's southern hemisphere, is centered asymmetrically around the South Pole and largely south of the Antarctic C ...

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Geography of Asia Geography of Asia reviews geographical concepts of classifying Asia, comprising 58 countries and territories. Geographical characteristics Boundary The area of Asia is not the sum of the areas of each of its regions, which have been def ...

( Outline) ** Central Asia#Geography ***

Geography of Kazakhstan Kazakhstan is located in Central Asia, with a small portion in Eastern Europe. With an area of about Kazakhstan is the ninth largest country in the world, more than twice the combined size of the other four Central Asian states and 60% larger ...

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Geography of Kyrgyzstan Kyrgyzstan is a landlocked nation in Central Asia, with an area of 199,951 km². The national territory extends about from east to west and from north to south. Kyrgyzstan is bordered on the east and southeast by China, on the north by Kazak ...

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Geography of Tajikistan Tajikistan is nestled between Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan to the north and west, China to the east, and Afghanistan to the south. Mountains cover 93 percent of Tajikistan's surface area. The two principal ranges, the Pamir Mountains and the Alay ...

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Geography of Turkmenistan Turkmenistan is a landlocked country in Central Asia, bordering the Caspian Sea to the west, Iran and Afghanistan to the south, Uzbekistan to the north-east, and Kazakhstan to the north-west. It is the southernmost republic of the Commonwealth ...

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Geography of Uzbekistan Uzbekistan is a country in Central Asia, located north of Turkmenistan and Afghanistan. With an area of approximately 448,900 square kilometers, Uzbekistan stretches from west to east and from north to south. It borders Turkmenistan to the south ...

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East Asia East Asia is a geocultural region of Asia. It includes China, Japan, Mongolia, North Korea, South Korea, and Taiwan, plus two special administrative regions of China, Hong Kong and Macau. The economies of Economy of China, China, Economy of Ja ...

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Geography of China China has great physical diversity. The eastern plain and southern coasts of the country consist of fertile lowlands and foothills. They are the location of most of China's agricultural output and human population. The southern areas of the ...

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Geography of Tibet The geography of Tibet consists of the high mountains, lakes and rivers lying between Central, East and South Asia. Traditionally, Western (European and American) sources have regarded Tibet as being in Central Asia, though today's maps show a ...

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Geography of Hong Kong The Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (HKSAR), can be divided into three geographical regions: Hong Kong Island, Kowloon (comprising the Kowloon Peninsula and New Kowloon), and the New Territories (including the Outlying Islands, Hong K ...

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Geography of Macau __NOTOC__ Macau is a Special Administrative Region on the southern coast of China. It is located at the south of Guangdong Province, on the tip of the peninsula formed by the Zhujiang (Pearl River) estuary on the east and the Xijiang (West Ri ...

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Geography of Japan Japan is an Island country, archipelagic country comprising a stratovolcano, stratovolcanic Japanese archipelago, archipelago over along the Pacific coast of East Asia. It consists of 14,125 islands. The four main islands are Hokkaido, Honshu, ...

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Geography of North Korea North Korea is located in East Asia in the Northern half of Korea, partially on the Korean Peninsula. It borders three countries: People's Republic of China, China along the Amnok River, Yalu (Amnok) River, Russia along the Tumen River, and Sou ...

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Geography of South Korea South Korea is located in East Asia, on the southern portion of the Korean Peninsula located out from the far east of the Asian landmass. The only country that shares a land border with South Korea is North Korea, lying to the north with of ...

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Geography of Mongolia Mongolia is a landlocked country in East Asia, located between China and Russia. The terrain is one of mountains and rolling plateaus, with a high degree of relief. The total land area of Mongolia is 1,564,116 square kilometres. Overall, the lan ...

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Geography of Taiwan Taiwan, officially the Republic of China (ROC), is a country in East Asia. The island of Taiwan, formerly known to Westerners as Formosa, has an area of and makes up 99% of the land under ROC control. It lies about across the Taiwan Strait ...

( Outline) ** North Asia#Geography ***

Geography of Russia Russia () is the largest country in the world, covering over , and encompassing more than one-eighth of Earth's inhabited land area. Russia extends across eleven time zones, and has the most borders of any country in the world, with sixteen ...

( Outline) ** Southeast Asia#Geography ***

Geography of Brunei Brunei is a country in Southeast Asia, bordering the South China Sea and East Malaysia. Its geographical coordinates are . The country is small with a total size of . It is larger in size than Trinidad and Tobago. It is close to vital sea lanes ...

( Outline) *** Burma (Myanmar) - Outline) ***

Geography of Cambodia Cambodia is a country in mainland Southeast Asia. It borders Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, the Gulf of Thailand and covers a total area of approximately . The country is situated in its entirety inside the tropical Indomalayan realm and the Indochin ...

( Outline) *** East Timor (Timor-Leste) - Outline) ***

Geography of Indonesia Indonesia is an archipelagic country located in Southeast Asia and Oceania, lying between the Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean. It is located in a strategic location astride or along major sea lanes connecting East Asia, South Asia and Ocean ...

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Geography of Laos Laos is a landlocked country in mainland Southeast Asia. It covers approximately 236,800 square kilometers and is surrounded by Myanmar, Cambodia, China, Thailand, and Vietnam. About 70% of its geographic area is made up of mountain ranges, hi ...

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Geography of Malaysia The geography of Malaysia includes both the physical and the human geography of Malaysia, a Southeast Asian country made up of two major landmasses separated by water—Peninsular Malaysia to the west and East Malaysia to the east—and numer ...

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Geography of the Philippines The Philippines is an archipelago that comprises 7,641 islands, and with a total land area of , it is the world's fifth largest island country. The eleven largest islands contain 95% of the total land area. The largest of these islands is Luzon ...

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Geography of Singapore Singapore is a city-state and island country in maritime Southeast Asia, located at the end of the Malayan Peninsula between Malaysia and Indonesia as well as the Straits of Malacca and the South China Sea. It is heavily compact and urbanised. ...

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Geography of Thailand Thailand is in the middle of mainland Southeast Asia. It has a total size of which is the 50th largest in the world. The land border is long with Myanmar, Cambodia, Laos and Malaysia. The nation's axial position influenced many aspects of T ...

( Outline) *** Geography of Vietnam ( Outline) ** South Asia#Geography ***

Geography of Afghanistan Afghanistan is a Landlocked country, landlocked mountainous country located on the Iranian Plateau, at the crossroads of Central Asia and South Asia.* * * * * * The country is the List of countries and dependencies by area, 40th largest in ...

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Geography of Bangladesh Bangladesh is a densely populated, low-lying, mainly riverine country located in South Asia with a coastline of on the northern littoral of the Bay of Bengal. The delta plain of the Ganges (Padma), Brahmaputra (Jamuna), and Meghna Rivers ...

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Geography of Bhutan Bhutan is a sovereign country at the crossroads of East Asia and South Asia, located towards the eastern extreme of the Himalayas mountain range. It is fairly evenly sandwiched between the sovereign territory of two nations: first, the Peopl ...

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Geography of India India is situated north of the equator between 8°4' north (the mainland) to 37°6' north latitude and 68°7' east to 97°25' east longitude. India Yearbook, p. 1 It is the seventh-largest country in the world, with a total area of . Total ...

( Outline) *** Geography of Maldives ( Outline) ***

Geography of Nepal Nepal measures about along its Himalayan axis by across. It has an area of . Nepal is landlocked by China's Tibet Autonomous Region to the north and India on other three sides. West Bengal's narrow ''Siliguri Corridor'' separate Nepal and ...

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Geography of Pakistan The Geography of Pakistan () encompasses a wide variety of landscapes varying from plains to deserts, forests, and plateaus ranging from the coastal areas of the Arabian Sea in the south to the mountains of the Karakoram, Hindukush, Himalayas ...

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Geography of Sri Lanka Sri Lanka, formerly called ''Ceylon'', is an island nation in the Indian Ocean, southeast of the Indian subcontinent, in a strategic location near major sea lanes. The nation has a total area of , with of land and of water. Its coastline is ...

(Outline of Sri Lanka, Outline) ** Western Asia#Geography *** Armenia#Geography (Outline of Armenia, Outline) *** Geography of Azerbaijan (Outline of Azerbaijan, Outline) *** Geography of Bahrain (Outline of Bahrain, Outline) *** Geography of Cyprus (Outline of Cyprus, Outline), including: **** Geography of Northern Cyprus (Outline of Northern Cyprus, Outline) (disputed territory) *** Geography of Georgia (country), Georgia (Outline of Georgia (country), Outline) *** Geography of Iran (Outline of Iran, Outline) *** Geography of Iraq (Outline of Iraq, Outline) *** Geography of Israel (Outline of Israel, Outline) *** Geography of Jordan (Outline of Jordan, Outline) *** Geography of Kuwait (Outline of Kuwait, Outline) *** Geography of Lebanon (Outline of Lebanon, Outline) *** Geography of Oman (Outline of Oman, Outline) *** Geography of the Palestinian territories (Outline of the Palestinian territories, Outline) *** Geography of Qatar (Outline of Qatar, Outline) *** Geography of Saudi Arabia (Outline of Saudi Arabia, Outline) *** Geography of Syria (Outline of Syria, Outline) *** Geography of Turkey (Outline of Turkey, Outline) *** Geography of United Arab Emirates (Outline of the United Arab Emirates, Outline) *** Geography of Yemen (Outline of Yemen, Outline) * Caucasus#Geography and ecology (a region considered to be in both Asia and Europe, or between them) ** North Caucasus ***

( Outline) (the following parts of Russia are in the North Caucasus: Chechnya, Ingushetia, Dagestan, Adyghea, Kabardino-Balkaria, Karachay–Cherkessia, North Ossetia, Krasnodar Krai, Stavropol Krai) ** South Caucasus *** Geography of Georgia (country), Georgia (Outline of Georgia (country), Outline), including: **** Geography of Abkhazia (Outline of Abhkazia, Outline) (disputed territory) **** Geography of South Ossetia (Outline of South Ossetia, Outline) (disputed territory) *** Armenia#Geography (Outline of Armenia, Outline) *** Geography of Azerbaijan (Outline of Azerbaijan, Outline), including: **** Geography of Nagorno-Karabakh (Outline of Nagorno-Karabakh, Outline) (disputed territory) * Geography of Europe (Outline of Europe, Outline) ** Geography of Akrotiri and Dhekelia (Outline of Akrotiri and Dhekelia, Outline) ** Geography of Åland (Outline of Åland, Outline) ** Geography of Albania (Outline of Albania, Outline) ** Geography of Andorra (Outline of Andorra, Outline) ** Geography of Armenia (Outline of Armenia, Outline) ** Geography of Austria (Outline of Austria, Outline) ** Geography of Azerbaijan (Outline of Azerbaijan, Outline) ** Geography of Belarus (Outline of Belarus, Outline) ** Geography of Belgium (Outline of Belgium, Outline) ** Geography of Bosnia and Herzegovina (Outline of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Outline) ** Geography of Bulgaria (Outline of Bulgaria, Outline) ** Geography of Croatia (Outline of Croatia, Outline) ** Geography of Cyprus (Outline of Cyprus, Outline) ** Geography of Czech Republic (Outline of the Czech Republic, Outline) ** Geography of Denmark (Outline of Denmark, Outline) ** Geography of Estonia (Outline of Estonia, Outline) ** Faroe Islands#Geography (Outline of the Faroe Islands, Outline) ** Geography of Finland (Outline of Finland, Outline) ** Geography of France (Outline of France, Outline) ** Geography of Georgia (country), Geography of Georgia (Outline of Georgia (country), Outline) ** Geography of Germany (Outline of Germany, Outline) ** Geography of Gibraltar (Outline of Gibraltar, Outline) ** Geography of Greece (Outline of Greece, Outline) ** Geography of Guernsey (Outline of Guernsey, Outline) ** Geography of Hungary (Outline of Hungary, Outline) ** Geography of Iceland (Outline of Iceland, Outline) ** Republic of Ireland#Geography (Outline of the Republic of Ireland, Outline) ** Geography of the Isle of Man (Outline of the Isle of Man, Outline) ** Geography of Italy (Outline of Italy, Outline) ** Geography of Jersey (Outline of Jersey, Outline) **

( Outline) ** Geography of Kosovo (Outline of Kosovo, Outline) ** Geography of Latvia (Outline of Latvia, Outline) ** Geography of Liechtenstein (Outline of Liechtenstein, Outline) ** Geography of Lithuania (Outline of Lithuania, Outline) ** Geography of Luxembourg (Outline of Luxembourg, Outline) ** Geography of Malta (Outline of Malta, Outline) ** Geography of Moldova (Outline of Moldova, Outline), including: *** Geography of Transnistria (Outline of Transnistria, Outline) (disputed territory) ** Geography of Monaco (Outline of Monaco, Outline) ** Geography of Montenegro (Outline of Montenegro, Outline) ** Geography of Netherlands (Outline of the Netherlands, Outline) ** Geography of North Macedonia (Outline of North Macedonia, Outline) ** Geography of Norway (Outline of Norway, Outline) ** Geography of Poland (Outline of Poland, Outline) ** Geography of Portugal (Outline of Portugal, Outline) ** Geography of Romania (Outline of Romania, Outline) **

( Outline) ** Geography of San Marino (Outline of San Marino, Outline) ** Geography of Serbia (Outline of Serbia, Outline) ** Geography of Slovakia (Outline of Slovakia, Outline) ** Geography of Slovenia (Outline of Slovenia, Outline) ** Geography of Spain (Outline of Spain, Outline) ** Geography of Svalbard (Outline of Svalbard, Outline) ** Geography of Sweden (Outline of Sweden, Outline) ** Geography of Switzerland (Outline of Switzerland, Outline) ** Geography of Turkey (Outline of Turkey, Outline) ** Geography of Ukraine (Outline of Ukraine, Outline) ** Geography of United Kingdom (Outline of the United Kingdom, Outline) *** Geography of England (Outline of England, Outline) *** Geography of Northern Ireland (Outline of Northern Ireland, Outline) *** Geography of Scotland (Outline of Scotland, Outline) *** Geography of Wales (Outline of Wales, Outline) ** Geography of Vatican City (Outline of Vatican City, Outline) * Geography of North America (Outline of North America, Outline) ** Geography of Canada (Outline of Canada, Outline) *** By province **** Geography of Alberta **** Geography of British Columbia (Outline of British Columbia, Outline) **** Geography of Manitoba **** Geography of New Brunswick **** Geography of Newfoundland and Labrador **** Geography of Nova Scotia **** Geography of Ontario **** Geography of Prince Edward Island **** Geography of Quebec (Outline of Quebec, Outline) **** Geography of Saskatchewan (Outline of Saskatchewan, Outline) *** By territory **** Geography of the Northwest Territories **** Geography of Nunavut **** Geography of Yukon ** Geography of Greenland (Outline of Greenland, Outline) ** Geography of Mexico (Outline of Mexico, Outline) ** Geography of Saint Pierre and Miquelon (Outline of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, Outline) ** Geography of United States (Outline of the United States, Outline) *** Geography of Alabama (Outline of Alabama, Outline) *** Geography of Alaska (Outline of Alaska, Outline) *** Geography of Arizona (Outline of Arizona, Outline) *** Geography of Arkansas (Outline of Arkansas, Outline) *** Geography of California (Outline of California, Outline) *** Geography of Colorado (Outline of Colorado, Outline) *** Geography of Connecticut (Outline of Connecticut, Outline) *** Geography of Delaware (Outline of Delaware, Outline) *** Geography of Florida (Outline of Florida, Outline) *** Geography of Georgia (U.S. state), Geography of Georgia (Outline of Georgia (U.S. state), Outline) *** Geography of Hawaii (Outline of Hawaii, Outline) *** Geography of Idaho (Outline of Idaho, Outline) *** Geography of Illinois (Outline of Illinois, Outline) *** Geography of Indiana (Outline of Indiana, Outline) *** Geography of Iowa (Outline of Iowa, Outline) *** Geography of Montana (Outline of Montana, Outline) *** Geography of Kansas (Outline of Kansas, Outline) *** Geography of Kentucky (Outline of Kentucky, Outline) *** Geography of Louisiana (Outline of Louisiana, Outline) *** Geography of Maine (Outline of Maine, Outline) *** Geography of Maryland (Outline of Maryland, Outline) *** Geography of Massachusetts (Outline of Massachusetts, Outline) *** Geography of Michigan (Outline of Michigan, Outline) *** Geography of Minnesota (Outline of Minnesota, Outline) *** Geography of Mississippi (Outline of Mississippi, Outline) *** Geography of Missouri (Outline of Missouri, Outline) *** Geography of Nebraska (Outline of Nebraska, Outline) *** Geography of Nevada (Outline of Nevada, Outline) *** Geography of New Hampshire (Outline of New Hampshire, Outline) *** Geography of New Jersey (Outline of New Jersey, Outline) *** Geography of New Mexico (Outline of New Mexico, Outline) *** Geography of New York (state), Geography of New York (Outline of New York (state), Outline) *** Geography of North Carolina (Outline of North Carolina, Outline) *** Geography of North Dakota (Outline of North Dakota, Outline) *** Geography of Ohio (Outline of Ohio, Outline) *** Geography of Oklahoma (Outline of Oklahoma, Outline) *** Geography of Oregon (Outline of Oregon, Outline) *** Geography of Pennsylvania (Outline of Pennsylvania, Outline) *** Geography of Rhode Island (Outline of Rhode Island, Outline) *** Geography of South Carolina (Outline of South Carolina, Outline) *** Geography of South Dakota (Outline of South Dakota, Outline) *** Geography of Tennessee (Outline of Tennessee, Outline) *** Geography of Texas (Outline of Texas, Outline) *** Geography of Utah (Outline of Utah, Outline) *** Geography of Vermont (Outline of Vermont, Outline) *** Geography of Virginia (Outline of Virginia, Outline) *** Geography of Washington (state) (Outline of Washington (state), Outline) *** Geography of West Virginia (Outline of West Virginia, Outline) *** Geography of Wisconsin (Outline of Wisconsin, Outline) *** Geography of Wyoming (Outline of Wyoming, Outline) *** Geography of Washington, D.C. (Outline of the District of Columbia, Outline) (Washington, D.C.) ** Central America#Geography (Outline of Central America, Outline) *** Geography of Belize (Outline of Belize, Outline) *** Geography of Costa Rica (Outline of Costa Rica, Outline) *** Geography of El Salvador (Outline of El Salvador, Outline) *** Geography of Guatemala (Outline of Guatemala, Outline) *** Geography of Honduras (Outline of Honduras, Outline) *** Geography of Nicaragua (Outline of Nicaragua, Outline) *** Geography of Panama (Outline of Panama, Outline) ** Geography of the Caribbean (Outline of the Caribbean, Outline) *** Geography of Anguilla (Outline of Anguilla, Outline) *** Geography of Antigua and Barbuda (Outline of Antigua and Barbuda, Outline) *** Geography of Aruba (Outline of Aruba, Outline) *** Geography of Bahamas (Outline of the Bahamas, Outline) *** Geography of Barbados (Outline of Barbados, Outline) *** Geography of Bermuda (Outline of Bermuda, Outline) *** British Virgin Islands#Geography (Outline of the British Virgin Islands, Outline) *** Cayman Islands#Geography (Outline of the Cayman Islands, Outline) *** Geography of Cuba (Outline of Cuba, Outline) *** Geography of Dominica (Outline of Dominica, Outline) *** Dominican Republic#Geography (Outline of the Dominican Republic, Outline) *** Geography of Grenada (Outline of Grenada, Outline) *** Geography of Haiti (Outline of Haiti, Outline) *** Geography of Jamaica (Outline of Jamaica, Outline) *** Geography of Montserrat (Outline of Montserrat, Outline) *** Netherlands Antilles#Geography (Outline of the Netherlands Antilles, Outline) *** Geography of Puerto Rico (Outline of Puerto Rico, Outline) *** Geography of Saint Barthélemy (Outline of Saint Barthélemy, Outline) *** Geography of Saint Kitts and Nevis (Outline of Saint Kitts and Nevis, Outline) *** Geography of Saint Lucia (Outline of Saint Lucia, Outline) *** Saint Martin (island), Saint Martin (Outline of Saint Martin, Outline) *** Geography of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines (Outline of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Outline) *** Geography of Trinidad and Tobago (Outline of Trinidad and Tobago, Outline) *** Turks and Caicos Islands#Geography (Outline of the Turks and Caicos Islands, Outline) *** United States Virgin Islands#Geography (Outline of the United States Virgin Islands, Outline) * Geography of Oceania (includes the continent of Australia) ** Australasia *** Geography of Australia (Outline of Australia, Outline) **** Dependencies and territories of Australia ***** Geography of Christmas Island (Outline of Christmas Island, Outline) ***** Cocos (Keeling) Islands#Geography (Outline of the Cocos (Keeling) Islands, Outline) ***** Geography of Norfolk Island (Outline of Norfolk Island, Outline) *** Geography of New Zealand (Outline of New Zealand, Outline) ** Geography of Melanesia *** Geography of Fiji (Outline of Fiji, Outline) ***

( Outline) (Oceanian part only) *** Geography of New Caledonia (Outline of New Caledonia, Outline) (France) *** Geography of Papua New Guinea (Outline of Papua New Guinea, Outline) *** Geography of the Solomon Islands (Outline of the Solomon Islands, Outline) *** Geography of Vanuatu (Outline of Vanuatu, Outline) ** Geography of Micronesia *** Geography of Federated States of Micronesia (Outline of the Federated States of Micronesia, Outline) *** Geography of Guam (Outline of Guam, Outline) (USA) *** Geography of Kiribati (Outline of Kiribati, Outline) *** Geography of Marshall Islands (Outline of the Marshall Islands, Outline) *** Geography of Nauru (Outline of Nauru, Outline) *** Northern Mariana Islands#Geography and climate (Outline of the Northern Mariana Islands, Outline) (USA) *** Geography of Palau (Outline of Palau, Outline) *** Geography of Wake Island (Outline of Wake Island, Outline) (USA) ** Geography of Polynesia *** Geography of American Samoa (Outline of American Samoa, Outline) (USA) *** Chatham Islands#Geography (Outline of the Chatham Islands, Outline) (NZ) *** Cook Islands#Geography (Outline of the Cook Islands, Outline) (NZ) *** Easter Island#Location and physical geography (Outline of Easter Island, Outline) (Chile) *** Geography of French Polynesia (Outline of French Polynesia, Outline) (France) *** Geography of Hawaii (Outline of Hawaii, Outline) (USA) *** Loyalty Islands#Geography (Outline of the Loyalty Islands, Outline) (France) *** Geography of Niue (Outline of Niue, Outline) (NZ) *** Pitcairn Islands#Geography (Outline of the Pitcairn Islands, Outline) (UK) *** Geography of Samoa (Outline of Samoa, Outline) *** Geography of Tokelau (Outline of Tokelau, Outline) (NZ) *** Geography of Tonga (Outline of Tonga, Outline) *** Geography of Tuvalu (Outline of Tuvalu, Outline) *** Geography of Wallis and Futuna (Outline of Wallis and Futuna, Outline) (France) * Geography of South America (Outline of South America, Outline) ** Geography of Argentina (Outline of Argentina, Outline) ** Geography of Bolivia (Outline of Bolivia, Outline) ** Geography of Brazil (Outline of Brazil, Outline) ** Geography of Chile (Outline of Chile, Outline) ** Geography of Colombia (Outline of Colombia, Outline) ** Geography of Ecuador (Outline of Ecuador, Outline) ** Geography of the Falkland Islands (Outline of the Falkland Islands, Outline) ** Geography of French Guiana (Outline of French Guiana, Outline) ** Geography of Guyana (Outline of Guyana, Outline) ** Geography of Paraguay (Outline of Paraguay, Outline) ** Geography of Peru (Outline of Peru, Outline) ** Geography of Suriname (Outline of Suriname, Outline) ** Geography of Uruguay (Outline of Uruguay, Outline) ** Geography of Venezuela (Outline of Venezuela, Outline)

Other regions

* Atlantic World * Bermuda Triangle * Pacific Rim * Pacific Ring of Fire

History of geography

Topics pertaining to the geographical study of the World throughout history:

By period

* Ancient roads * Ancient Greek geography * Age of Discovery * Major explorations after the Age of Discovery * Critical geography * Environmental determinism

By region

* **

By subject

* Historical demography#Historical population of the world, Historical population of the world

By field

* History of human geography ** *** **** ** Cultural geography#History, History of cultural geography ** Economic geography#History of economic geography, History of economic geography ** Health geography#History, History of health geography ** Political geography#History, History of political geography *** Demography#History, History of demography * History of physical geography ** Biogeography#History, History of biogeography ** Climatology#History, History of climatology ** Meteorology#History, History of meteorology ** ** Geomorphology#History, History of geomorphology ** Hydrology#History, History of hydrology *** Oceanography#History, History of oceanography ** Landscape ecology#History, History of landscape ecology * Regional geography#History, History of regional geography

Elements of geography

Topics common to the various branches of geography include:

Tasks and tools of geography

* * * * * ** ** *** ** * * *

Types of geographic features

Geographic feature – component of a planet that can be referred to as a location, place, site, area, or region, and therefore may show up on a map. A geographic feature may be natural or artificial.

Location and place

* Location (geography), Location – ** *** **** *** **** **** **** **** **** **** **** *** **** * Place ** Aspects of a place or region *** *** **** ***** **** **** *** *** *** *** ** Geography is a worldwide study

Natural geographic features

Natural geographic feature – an ecosystem or natural landform.

= Ecosystems

= Ecosystem – community of living organisms in conjunction with the nonliving components of their environment (things like air, water and mineral soil), interacting as a system. These biotic and abiotic components are regarded as linked together through nutrient cycles and energy flows. * * Biogeographic realm, Realm – broadest biogeographic division of the Earth's land surface, based on distributional patterns of terrestrial organisms. ** Ecoprovince – biogeographic unit smaller than a realm that contains one or more ecoregions. *** **** **** ***** ****** ******* * ** *** ****

= Natural landforms

= Landform, Natural landform – terrain or body of water. Landforms are topographical elements, and are defined by their surface form and location in the landscape. Landforms are categorized by traits such as elevation, slope, orientation, stratum, stratification, rock exposure, and soil type. Some landforms are artificial, such as certain islands, but most landforms are natural.

Natural terrain feature types

* * * * * * Peninsula – Landform that extends from a mainland and is surrounded by water on most sides. *

Natural body of water types

* Natural ** Bodies of *** *** *** *** **** ***** ***** **** **** **** **** *** *** *** **** *** **** Arm of the sea – **** *** *** *** *** **** Types of sea: ***** ***** **** Sea components or extensions: ***** ***** *** ** Bodies of fresh water *** *** **** **** **** **** *** **** ***** **** **** **** *** **** ***** Parts of a river: ***** ***** ***** ****** *** *** **** Boil - *** **** **** **** **** ***** ****** ****** **** *** **** Freshwater **** *****

Artificial geographic features

Artificial geographic feature – a thing that was made by humans that may be indicated on a map. It may be physical and exist in the real world (like a bridge or city), or it may be abstract and exist only on maps (such as the Equator, which has a defined location, but cannot be seen where it lies). * ** ** – rural settlement which is too small to be considered a village. Historically, when a hamlet became large enough to justify building a church, it was then classified as a village. One example of a hamlet is a small cluster of houses surrounding a mill. ** – clustered human settlement or community, larger than a hamlet with the population ranging from a few hundred to a few thousand (sometimes tens of thousands). ** – human settlement larger than a village but smaller than a city. The size a settlement must be in order to be called a "town" varies considerably in different parts of the world, so that, for example, many American "small towns" seem to British people to be no more than villages, while many British "small towns" would qualify as cities in the United States. *** – ranks the structure of towns within an area. **** – bare minimum of essential services, such as bread and milk. **** **** **** ** – relatively large and permanent settlement. In many regions, a city is distinguished from a town by attainment of designation according to law, for instance being required to obtain articles of incorporation or a royal charter. *** *** – the leading city in its country or region, disproportionately larger than any others in the urban hierarchy. *** – very large city or urban area which is a significant economic, political and cultural center for a country or region, and an important hub for regional or international connections and communications. *** – region consisting of a densely populated urban core and its less-populated surrounding territories, sharing industry, infrastructure, and housing. *** – city that is deemed to be an important node in the global economic system. Globalization is largely created, facilitated and enacted in strategic geographic locales (including global cities) according to a hierarchy of importance to the operation of the global system of finance and trade. *** – chain of roughly adjacent metropolitan areas. An example is the huge metropolitan area along the eastern seaboard of the U.S. extending from Boston, Massachusetts through New York City; Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; Baltimore, Maryland and ending in Washington, D.C.. *** – theoretical "continent city". The world does not have one yet. Will Europe become the first one? *** – theoretical "world city". Will the world ever become so urbanized as to be called this? * Engineered construct – built feature of the landscape such as a highway, bridge, airport, railroad, building, dam, or reservoir (water), reservoir. See also construction engineering and infrastructure. ** Artificial landforms *** *** *** ** – place where airplanes can take off and land, including one or more runways and one or more passenger terminals. ** – artificial channel that is constructed to convey water from one location to another. ** – construction designed to break the force of the sea to provide calm water for boats or ships, or to prevent erosion of a coastal feature. ** – structure built to span a valley, road, body of water, or other physical obstacle such as a canyon, for the purpose of providing passage over the obstacle. ** – closed structure with walls and a roof. ** – artificial waterway, often connecting one body of water with another. ** ** – structure placed across a flowing body of water to stop the flow, usually to use the water for irrigation or to generate electricity. *** – barrier of stone or earth used to hold back water and prevent flooding. **** – artificial slope or wall to regulate water levels, usually Soil, earthen and often Parallel (geometry), parallel to the course of a river or the coast. ** – place where agricultural activities take place, especially the growing of crops or the raising of livestock. ** – harbor that has deliberately constructed breakwaters, sea walls, or jetties, or which was constructed by dredging. ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** *** *** *** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** China administrative

* Abstract geographic feature – does not exist physically in the real world, yet has a location by definition and may be displayed on maps. ** *** *** ** *** *** – a designated territory (country subdivision), territory created within a country for administrative or identification purposes. Examples of the types of administrative divisions: **** **** **** **** **** **** **** **** **** **** **** **** **** **** **** ***** ***** ****** ****** ***** **** **** **** **** **** **** **** ** Cartographical feature – theoretical construct used specifically on maps that doesn't have any physical form apart from its location. *** **** *** **** *** **** ****

Geographic features that include the natural and artificial

* **

Geography awards

Some awards and competitions in the field of geography: * * * * * *

Geographical organizations

: ''See: List of geographical societies'' *European Geography Association *EUROGEO-European Association of Geographers *Gamma Theta Upsilon *International Geographical Union

Geographical publications

Geographical magazines

* ''Al Arab (magazine), Al Arab'' * ''Arizona Highways'' * ''Asian Geographic'' * ''Atlas (magazine)'' * ''Australian Geographic'' * ''Canadian Geographic'' * ''Chinese National Geography'' * ''Le Congo illustré'' * ''GEO (magazine)'' * ''Géographica'' * ''Geographical (magazine), Geographical'' * ''Icelandic Geographic'' * ''Le Mouvement Géographique'' * ''National Geographic'' * ''National Geographic Adventure (magazine), National Geographic Adventure'' * ''National Geographic Kids'' * ''National Geographic Traveler'' * ''New Zealand Geographic'' * ''Podróże (magazine), Podróże'' * ''Revista Geográfica Española'' * ''Rhythms Monthly'' * ''Vokrug sveta'' * ''Walkabout (magazine), Walkabout'' * ''The Wide World Magazine''

Persons influential in geography

A geographer is a scientist who studies

's physical environment (biophysical), environment and human habitat (ecology), habitat. Geographers are historically known for making maps, the subdiscipline of geography known as cartography. They study the physical details of the environment and also its effect on human and wildlife ecology, ecologies, weather and

patterns, economics, and culture. Geographers focus on the spatial relationships between these elements.

Influential physical geographers

* Eratosthenes (276194 BC) – who made the first known reliable estimation of the Earth's size. He is considered the father of geodesy.Avraham Ariel, Nora Ariel Berger (2006)."
Plotting the globe: stories of meridians, parallels, and the international
'". Greenwood Publishing Group. p.12. * Ptolemy (c. 168) – who compiled Greek and Roman knowledge to produce the book ''Geographia''. * Abū Rayhān Bīrūnī (9731048 AD) – considered the father of geodesy.Akbar S. Ahmed (1984). "Al-Beruni: The First Anthropologist", ''RAIN'' 60, p. 9-10. * Avicenna, Ibn Sina (Avicenna, 980–1037) – whose observations in ''Kitab al-Shifa, Kitab Al-Shifa'' contributed to later formulations of the law of superposition and concept of Uniformitarianism (science), uniformitarianism. * Muhammad al-Idrisi (Dreses, 1100c.1165) – who drew the ''Tabula Rogeriana'', the most accurate world map in pre-modern times. * Piri Reis (1465c.1554) – whose Piri Reis map is the oldest surviving world map to include the Americas and possibly

* Gerardus Mercator (1512–1594) – an innovative Cartography, cartographer and originator of the Mercator projection. * Bernhardus Varenius (1622–1650) – Wrote his important work "General Geography" (1650) – first overview of the geography, the foundation of modern geography. * Mikhail Lomonosov (1711–1765) – father of Russian geography and founded the study of glaciology. * Alexander von Humboldt (1769–1859) – considered the father of modern geography. Published ''Kosmos'' and founded the study of biogeography. * Arnold Henry Guyot (1807–1884) – who noted the structure of glaciers and advanced the understanding of glacial motion, especially in fast ice flow. * Louis Agassiz (1807–1873) – the author of a glacial theory which disputed the notion of a steady-cooling Earth. * Alfred Russel Wallace (1823–1913) – founder of modern biogeography and the

. * Vasily Dokuchaev (1846–1903) – patriarch of Russian geography and founder of pedology. * Wladimir Peter Köppen (1846–1940) – developer of most important climate classification and founder of Paleoclimatology. * William Morris Davis (1850–1934) – father of American geography, founder of Geomorphology and developer of the geographical cycle theory. * Walther Penck (1888–1923) – proponent of the cycle of erosion and the simultaneous occurrence of Tectonic uplift, uplift and denudation. * Sir Ernest Shackleton (1874–1922) – Antarctic explorer during the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration. * Robert E. Horton (1875–1945) – founder of modern hydrology and concepts such as infiltration capacity and overland flow. * J Harlen Bretz (1882–1981) – pioneer of research into the shaping of landscapes by catastrophic floods, most notably the Missoula Floods, Bretz (Missoula) floods. * Willi Dansgaard (born 1922) – palaeoclimatologist and quaternary scientist, instrumental in the use of oxygen-isotope dating and co-identifier of Dansgaard–Oeschger events. * Hans Oeschger (1927–1998) – palaeoclimatologist and pioneer in ice core research, co-identifier of Dansgaard-Orschger events. * Richard Chorley (1927–2002) – a key contributor to the

and the use of systems theory in geography. * Sir Nicholas Shackleton (1937–2006) – who demonstrated that oscillations in climate over the past few million years could be correlated with variations in the orbital and positional relationship between the Earth and the Sun. * Stefan Rahmstorf (born 1960) – professor of abrupt climate changes and author on theories of thermohaline dynamics.

Influential human geographers

* Carl Ritter (1779–1859) – considered to be one of the founding fathers of modern geography and first chair in geography at the Humboldt University of Berlin, also noted for his use of organic analogy in his works. * Friedrich Ratzel (1844–1904) – Environmental determinism, environmental determinist, invented the term ''Lebensraum'' * Paul Vidal de la Blache (1845–1918) – founder of the French School of geopolitics and Possibilism (geography), possibilism. * Sir Halford Mackinder, Halford John Mackinder (1861–1947) – author of ''The Geographical Pivot of History'', co-founder of the London School of Economics, along with the Geographical Association. * Carl O. Sauer (1889–1975) – critic of environmental determinism and proponent of cultural ecology. * Walter Christaller (1893–1969) – economic geographer and developer of the central place theory. * Richard Hartshorne (1899–1992) – scholar of the history and philosophy of geography. * Torsten Hägerstrand (1916–2004) – critic of the

and regional science, noted figure in critical geography. * Milton Santos (1926–2001) winner of the Vautrin Lud prize in 1994, one of the most important geographers in South America. * Waldo R. Tobler (born 1930) – developer of the First law of geography. * Yi-Fu Tuan (born 1930) A Chinese-American geographer. * David Harvey (geographer), David Harvey (born 1935) – world's most cited academic geographer and winner of the Lauréat Prix International de Géographie Vautrin Lud, also noted for his work in critical geography and critique of globalization, global capitalism. * Evelyn Stokes (1936–2005). Professor of geography at the University of Waikato in New Zealand. Known for recognizing inequality with marginalized groups, including women and Māori people, Māori using geography. * Allen J. Scott (born 1938) – winner of Lauréat Prix International de Géographie Vautrin Lud, Vautrin Lud Prize in 2003 and the Anders Retzius Gold medal 2009; author of numerous books and papers on economic and urban geography, known for his work on regional development, new industrial spaces, agglomeration theory, global city-regions and the cultural economy. * Edward Soja (born 1941) – noted for his work on regional development, planning, and governance, along with coining the terms synekism and postmetropolis. * Doreen Massey (geographer), Doreen Massey (born 1944) – key scholar in the space and places of globalization and its pluralities, winner of the Lauréat Prix International de Géographie Vautrin Lud, Vautrin Lud Prize. * Michael Watts (geographer), Michael Watts, Class of 1963 Professor of Geography and Development Studies, University of California, Berkeley * Nigel Thrift (born 1949) – developer of non-representational theory. * Derek Gregory (born 1951) – famous for writing on the Israeli, U.S. and UK actions in the Middle East after 9/11, influenced by Edward Said and has contributed work on imagined geographies. * Cindi Katz (born 1954) – who writes on social reproduction and the production of space. Writing on children's geographies, place and nature, everyday life and security. * Gillian Rose (geographer), Gillian Rose (born 1962) – most famous for her critique: ''Feminism & Geography: The Limits of Geographical Knowledge'' (1993) – which was one of the first moves towards development of feminist geography.

Geography educational frameworks

Educational frameworks upon which primary and secondary school curricula for geography are based include: * *# – a position or point that something occupies on the Earth's surface. *# *# *# :wikt:movement, movement – *# * The six "essential elements" identified by the Geography Education Standards Project, under which the National Geography Standards they developed are organized:Richard G Boehm, Roger M Downs, Sarah W Bednarz. ''Geography for Life: National Geography Standards.'' National Council for Geographic Education, 1994 *# The Earth, World in spatial terms *# Place (geography), Places and regions *# Physical systems *# Social systems, Human systems *# Natural environment, Environment and Society#In sociology, society *# The uses of geography * The three content areas of geography from the 2010 National Assessment of Educational Progress
Geography Framework for the 2010 National Assessment of Educational Progress.
' National Assessment Governing Board, U.S. Department of Education, p. vii: (U.S.): *# Space#Geographical space, Space and Place (geography), place *# Natural environment, Environment and Society#In sociology, society *# Spatial dynamics and Interconnectivity, connections

References

External links

* Pidwirny, Michael. (2014). ''Glossary of Terms for Physical Geography.'' Planet Earth Publishing, Kelowna, Canada. . Available o
Google Play
* Pidwirny, Michael. (2014). ''Understanding Physical Geography.'' Planet Earth Publishing, Kelowna, Canada. . Available o
Google Play
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