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The Lindy Hop is an American dance which was born in the African-American communities of
Harlem Harlem is a neighborhood in Upper Manhattan, New York City. It is bounded roughly by the Hudson River on the west; the Harlem River and 155th Street on the north; Fifth Avenue on the east; and Central Park North on the south. The greater ...
, New York City, in 1928 and has evolved since then. It was very popular during the swing era of the late 1930s and early 1940s. Lindy is a fusion of many dances that preceded it or were popular during its development but is mainly based on
jazz Jazz is a music genre that originated in the African-American communities of New Orleans, Louisiana, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Its roots are in blues, ragtime, European harmony, African rhythmic rituals, spirituals, h ...
, tap, breakaway, and Charleston. It is frequently described as a
jazz dance Jazz Dance is a performance dance and style that arose in the United States in the early 20th century. Jazz Dance may allude to vernacular Jazz, Broadway or dramatic Jazz. The two types expand on African American vernacular styles of dance that ...
and is a member of the
swing dance Swing dance is a group of social dances that developed with the swing style of jazz music in the 1920s–1940s, with the origins of each dance predating the popular " swing era". Hundreds of styles of swing dancing were developed; those that h ...
family. In its development, the Lindy Hop combined elements of both partnered and solo dancing by using the movements and improvisation of
African-American dance African-American dance is a form of dance that was created by Africans in the Diaspora, specifically the United States. It has developed within various spaces throughout African-American communities in the United States, rather than studios, sc ...
s along with the formal eight-count structure of European
partner dance file:Tanzturnier 28.JPG, Ballroom dancers performing the tango. file:dance-At-Bougival.jpg, upPartner dance, ''Dance at Bougival'' by Pierre-Auguste Renoir, 1883 Partner dances are dances whose basic choreography involves coordinated dancing of t ...
s – most clearly illustrated in the Lindy's defining move, the
swingout The swingout is the defining dance move of Lindy Hop. The swingout evolved from the breakaway, which in turn evolved from the Texas Tommy. The first documented mention of the swingout pattern that resembles breakaway was in 1911, to describe a ...
. In this step's
open position In partner dancing, an open position is a position in which partners are connected primarily at the hands. The connection is through the hands, wrists, and fingers, and relies heavily on frame and the compression and tension of both partners' ar ...
, each dancer is generally connected hand-to-hand; in its
closed position In partner dancing, closed position is a category of positions in which partners hold each other while facing at least approximately toward each other. Closed positions employ either body contact or body support, that is, holding each other is ...
, leads and follows are connected as though in an embrace on one side and holding hands on the other. There was renewed interest in the dance in the 1980s from American, Swedish, and British dancers and the Lindy Hop is now represented by dancers and loosely affiliated grass-roots organizations in North America, South America, Europe, Asia, and Oceania. Lindy Hop today is danced as a
social dance Social dances are dances that have social functions and context. Social dances are intended for participation rather than Concert dance, performance. They are often danced merely to socialise and for entertainment, though they may have Ceremoni ...
, as a
competitive dance Competitive dance is a popular, widespread sport in which competitors perform dances in any of several permitted dance styles—such as acro, ballet, contemporary, jazz, hip-hop, lyrical, modern, musical theatre, tap, and improv—before a ...
, as a
performance dance Concert dance (also known as performance dance or theatre dance in the United Kingdom) is dance performed for an audience. It is frequently performed in a theatre setting, though this is not a requirement, and it is usually choreography, choreogr ...
, and in classes, workshops, and camps. Partners may dance alone or together, with
improvisation Improvisation, often shortened to improv, is the activity of making or doing something not planned beforehand, using whatever can be found. The origin of the word itself is in the Latin "improvisus", which literally means un-foreseen. Improvis ...
a central part of social dancing and many performance and competition pieces. Lindy Hop is sometimes referred to as a
street dance Street dance is an umbrella term for a large number of social dance styles such as: breakdancing, popping, Locking (dance), locking, house dance, waacking, voguing, etc. Social dance styles have many accompanying steps and foundations, created o ...
, referring to its improvisational and social nature. In 1932, twelve-year-old
Norma Miller Norma Adele Miller (December 2, 1919 – May 5, 2019) was an American Lindy hop dancer, choreographer, actress, author, and comedian known as the "Queen of Swing". Early life Miller was born in 1919 in Harlem, New York City, to mother Alma, a c ...
did the Lindy Hop outside the
Savoy Ballroom The Savoy Ballroom was a large ballroom for music and public dancing located at 596 Lenox Avenue, between 140th and 141st Streets in the Harlem neighborhood of Manhattan, New York City. Lenox Avenue was the main thoroughfare through upper Harlem ...
with her friends for tips. In 1935, 15,000 people danced on Bradhurst Avenue for the second of a dance series held by the Parks Department. Between 147th and 148th street, Harlem "threw itself into the Lindy Hop with abandon" as Sugar Hill residents watched from the bluffs along Edgecombe Avenue.


History


From jazz to swing (1920s–1940s)


Name origins

The first dances named as ''Lindy Hop'' were born around the time the aviator
Charles Lindbergh Charles Augustus Lindbergh (February 4, 1902 – August 26, 1974) was an American aviator, military officer, and author. On May 20–21, 1927, he made the first nonstop flight from New York (state), New York to Paris, a distance of . His aircra ...
made his groundbreaking flight across the Atlantic Ocean in May 1927. The most famous Lindy Hop dance, which is not connected to the other Lindy Hop dances, was born in the Harlem
dance marathon Dance marathons (or marathon dances) are events in which people dance or walk to music for an extended period of time. They started as dance contests in the 1920s and developed into human endurance contests, or exploitative entertainment events d ...
in 1928 where
George Snowden George "Shorty" Snowden (July 4, 1904 – May 1982) was an African American dancer in Harlem during the 1920s and 1930s. He and his partner Mattie Purnell invented the Harlem Lindy Hop in the dance marathon at Harlem's Rockland Palace between ...
and Mattie Purnell reinvented the breakaway pattern by accident. That started a process in which their invention became bigger than it initially suggested. The
Harlem Harlem is a neighborhood in Upper Manhattan, New York City. It is bounded roughly by the Hudson River on the west; the Harlem River and 155th Street on the north; Fifth Avenue on the east; and Central Park North on the south. The greater ...
dance is the only one of the Lindy Hop dances that survived in the long run. The Harlem Lindy Hop developed probably from four possible sources, or some combination thereof: the breakaway, the Charleston, the Texas Tommy, and the hop. A recorded source of the non-Harlem-connected Lindy Hop dances is the famed aviator Charles Lindbergh, nicknamed "Lucky Lindy", who "hopped the Atlantic" in 1927. After Lindbergh's solo non-stop flight from New York to Paris in 1927 he became incredibly popular and many people named songs, recipes and businesses among several other things, after him. Te Roy Williams and His Orchestra recorded the song "Lindbergh Hop", written by Ted Nixon and
Elmer Snowden Elmer Chester Snowden (October 9, 1900 – May 14, 1973) was an American banjo player of the jazz age. He also played guitar and, in the early stages of his career, all the reed instruments. He contributed greatly to jazz in its early days as bo ...
, on May 25, 1927. The
Memphis Jug Band The Memphis Jug Band was an American musical group active from the mid-1920s to the late-1950s. The band featured harmonica, kazoo, fiddle and mandolin or banjolin, backed by guitar, piano, washboard, washtub bass and jug. They played slow blues, ...
on September 13, 1928 recorded "Lindberg Hop- Overseas stomp," written by Jab Jones and
Will Shade William Shade Jr. (February 5, 1893 – September 18, 1966) was a Memphis blues musician, best known for his leadership of the Memphis Jug Band. He was commonly called Son Brimmer, a nickname from his grandmother Annie Brimmer (''son'' is short f ...
. The first of the Lindy Hop-named dances was probably the "Lindbergh Hop" which was referred to as Lindy "Hop" in the headline of an article in ''Pittsburgh Gazette Times'' on May 25, 1927, just four days after Lindbergh landed at
Le Bourget Le Bourget () is a commune in the northeastern suburbs of Paris, France. It is located from the center of Paris. The commune features Le Bourget Airport, which in turn hosts the Musée de l'Air et de l'Espace (Air and Space Museum). A very ...
. The dance was reported to be Broadway's tribute to Lindbergh, and it included six basic steps. Later, a "Lindy Hop" dance was described by columnist Gilbert Swan. He wrote, "Obviously the first dance named for the Lindbergh flight was the 'Lindy Hop'...Like all trick dances, they will be done in a few theatres and dance halls, where experts appear, and that will be that". Later that year, on September 14, the Woodland ''Daily Democrat'' reported Catherine B. Sullivan describing the "Lindy Hop" as having been placed third in the Dancing Masters of America, New Dances competition, behind the Kikajou and the Dixie Step. (The "Lindy Hop" was also described in reports as the "Lindbergh Glide"). The journalist reports that Miss Johnson showed a very fast little step, with hops and a kick, whilst holding the arms out, like the
Spirit of St. Louis The ''Spirit of St. Louis'' (formally the Ryan NYP, registration: N-X-211) is the custom-built, single-engine, single-seat, high-wing monoplane that Charles Lindbergh flew on May 20–21, 1927, on the Charles Lindbergh#New York–Paris flight ...
. The foot work is described as "dum-de-dum, dum-de-dum, dum-de-dum". According to Ethel Williams, the Lindy Hop was similar to the dance known as the Texas Tommy in New York in 1913. The basic steps in the Texas Tommy were followed by a breakaway identical to that found in the Lindy. Savoy dancer "Shorty" George Snowden told Marshall Stearns in 1959 that "We used to call the basic step the Hop long before Lindbergh did ''his'' hop across the Atlantic. It had been around a long time and some people began to call it the Lindbergh Hop after 1927, although it didn't last. Then, during the marathon at Manhattan Casino, I got tired of the same old steps and cut loose with a breakaway..." According to Snowden,
Fox Movietone News Movietone News was a newsreel that ran from December 1927 to 1963 in the United States. Under the name British Movietone News, it also ran in the United Kingdom from 1929 to 1986, in France also produced by Fox-Europa, in Spain in the early 1930s a ...
covered the marathon and took a close-up of Shorty's feet. As told to
Marshall Marshall may refer to: Places Australia *Marshall, Victoria, a suburb of Geelong, Victoria ** Marshall railway station Canada * Marshall, Saskatchewan * The Marshall, a mountain in British Columbia Liberia * Marshall, Liberia Marshall Is ...
and Jean Stearns, he was asked "What are you doing with your feet," and replied, "The Lindy". The date was June 17, 1928. Snowden's account to Stearns probably refers to the fact that he used already existing elements of the dance when he and his partner Mattie Purnell had an accident in the dance marathon where they became separated for a while until Snowden got back to Purnell. According to Snowden, the crowd in the dance marathon answered enthusiastically to the accident. As Marshall Stearns put it, Snowden rediscovered the Breakaway pattern when the accident happened. But the accident where Snowden and Purnell devised the basic principle of the Lindy Hop turned out to be much bigger than it initially suggested. Their invention started a process which led the Lindy Hop to contests, theaters and ballrooms by the end of 1928, and to Broadway plays by 1930. Thus, Snowden and Purnell are the creators of the Harlem Lindy Hop. The first generation of Lindy Hop is popularly associated with dancers such as "Shorty" George Snowden, his partner Big Bea, and Leroy Stretch Jones and Little Bea. "Shorty" George and Big Bea regularly won contests at the
Savoy Ballroom The Savoy Ballroom was a large ballroom for music and public dancing located at 596 Lenox Avenue, between 140th and 141st Streets in the Harlem neighborhood of Manhattan, New York City. Lenox Avenue was the main thoroughfare through upper Harlem ...
. Their dancing accentuated the difference in size with Big Bea towering over Shorty. These dancers specialized in so-called floor steps, but they also experimented with early versions of air steps in the Lindy Hop. As white people began going to Harlem to watch black dancers, according to
Langston Hughes James Mercer Langston Hughes (February 1, 1901 – May 22, 1967) was an American poet, social activist, novelist, playwright, and columnist from Joplin, Missouri. An early innovator of jazz poetry, Hughes is best known as a leader of the Harl ...
: Hughes's mocking statement reflects how the
Harlem Renaissance The Harlem Renaissance was an intellectual and cultural revival of African-American music, dance, art, fashion, literature, theater, politics, and scholarship centered in Harlem, Manhattan, New York City, spanning the 1920s and 1930s. At the ti ...
movement acknowledged the Lindy Hop which the movement considered part of "low culture", and thus not an important cultural achievement. According to Snowden, "When he finally offered to pay us, we went up and had a ball. All we wanted to do was dance anyway."


Aerial Creation

When by 1936 "Air steps" or "aerials" such as the Hip to Hip, Side Flip, and Over the Back (the names describe the motion of the follow in the air) began to appear, the old guard of dancers such as Leon James, Leroy Jones, and Shorty Snowden disapproved of the new moves. Younger dancers fresh out of high school ( Al Minns, Joe Daniels, Russell Williams, and Pepsi Bethel) worked out the Back Flip, "Over the head", and "the Snatch".
Frankie Manning Frank Manning (May 26, 1914 – April 27, 2009) was an American dancer, instructor, and choreographer. Manning is considered one of the founders of Lindy Hop, an energetic form of the jazz dance style known as swing. Biography Manning was b ...
was part of a new generation of Lindy Hoppers, and is the most celebrated Lindy Hopper in history. Al Minns and
Pepsi Bethel Alfred "Pepsi" Bethel (August 31, 1918, Greensboro, North Carolina – August 30, 2002, New York City) was a jazz dancer, choreographer, and leader of his own dance troupe, the Pepsi Bethel Authentic Jazz Dance Theater, which he founded in 1960.T ...
,
Leon James Leon James may refer to: * Leon James (composer) (born 1991), Indian film composer and singer * Leon James (dancer) (died 1970), American Lindy Hop and jazz dancer * Leon James (footballer) (born 2001), Thai footballer {{hndis, James, Leon ...
, and
Norma Miller Norma Adele Miller (December 2, 1919 – May 5, 2019) was an American Lindy hop dancer, choreographer, actress, author, and comedian known as the "Queen of Swing". Early life Miller was born in 1919 in Harlem, New York City, to mother Alma, a c ...
are also featured prominently in contemporary histories of Lindy Hop. Some sources credit Manning, working with his partner Freida Washington, for inventing the ground-breaking "Air Step" or " aerial" in 1935. One source credits Al Minns and Pepsi Bethel as among those who refined the air step. However, early versions of air steps in the Lindy Hop were performed already from the very beginning of the 1930s. An Air Step is a dance move in which at least one of the partners' two feet leave the ground in a dramatic, acrobatic style. Most importantly, it is done in time with the music. Air steps are now widely associated with the characterization of Lindy Hop, despite being generally reserved for competition or performance dancing, and not generally being executed on any social dance floor.


Mainstream Culture

Lindy Hop entered mainstream American culture in the 1930s, gaining popularity through multiple sources. Dance troupes, including the
Whitey's Lindy Hoppers Whitey's Lindy Hoppers was a professional performing group of exceptional swing dancers that was first organized in the late 1920s by Herbert "Whitey" White in the Savoy Ballroom and disbanded in 1942 after its male members were drafted into Worl ...
(also known as the Harlem Congaroos), Hot Chocolates and Big Apple Dancers exhibited the Lindy Hop. Hollywood films, such as '' Hellzapoppin''' and '' A Day at the Races'' began featuring the Lindy Hop in dance sequences. Dance studios such as those of
Arthur Murray Arthur Murray (born Moses Teichman; April 4, 1895 – March 3, 1991) was an American ballroom dancer and businessman, whose name is most often associated with the dance studio chain that bears his name. Early life and start in dance Arthur Mur ...
began teaching Lindy Hop. By the early 1940s the dance was known as "New Yorker" on the West Coast. Jazz-loving youths were enamored with the bands of the time, influenced by radio stations and the film industry showcasing clips. In Nazi Germany, the
Swingjugend The Swing Youth () were a youth counterculture of jazz and swing lovers in Germany formed in Hamburg in 1939. Primarily active in Hamburg and Berlin, they were composed of 14- to 21-year-old Germans, mostly middle or upper-class students, b ...
, young rebels, defied the regime's cultural restrictions by embracing banned swing music. Similarly, in California and other parts of the country,
Mexican-Americans Mexican Americans are Americans of full or partial Mexican descent. In 2022, Mexican Americans comprised 11.2% of the US population and 58.9% of all Hispanic and Latino Americans. In 2019, 71% of Mexican Americans were born in the United State ...
, Japanese-heritage individuals, Black, and white youth all adored jazz music and wanted to learn the new dance steps. This African American dance would be integral in shaping the aesthetics of contemporary African American culture and tradition. The swing dance was influenced by a variety of other different dances during the time like the Charleston, jazz and even tap step. It would soon be influential in overall pop-culture and dance at the time. Even being appropriated by other cultures. During the creation of this dance, it was during a time in which black and white counterparts had to be segregated in social places. Even with these limitations the African American Community is still able to celebrate their heritage and black musical traditions with a dance that embodies elements of improvisations and musicality, while surviving as a reminder of the historical context from which Black art forms emerged. In 1943, Lindy Hop was featured on the cover of
Life Life, also known as biota, refers to matter that has biological processes, such as Cell signaling, signaling and self-sustaining processes. It is defined descriptively by the capacity for homeostasis, Structure#Biological, organisation, met ...
magazine, becoming America's National Folk Dance and a recruitment tool for the military.
Hollywood Hollywood usually refers to: * Hollywood, Los Angeles, a neighborhood in California * Hollywood, a metonym for the cinema of the United States Hollywood may also refer to: Places United States * Hollywood District (disambiguation) * Hollywood ...
capitalized on its popularity in films, promoting enlistment for the military and fostering unity and support for the troops. In 1944, due to continued involvement in
World War II World War II or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War II, Allies and the Axis powers. World War II by country, Nearly all of the wo ...
, the United States levied a 30 percent federal
excise tax file:Lincoln Beer Stamp 1871.JPG, upright=1.2, 1871 U.S. Revenue stamp for 1/6 barrel of beer. Brewers would receive the stamp sheets, cut them into individual stamps, cancel them, and paste them over the Bunghole, bung of the beer barrel so when ...
against "dancing"
nightclub A nightclub or dance club is a club that is open at night, usually for drinking, dancing and other entertainment. Nightclubs often have a Bar (establishment), bar and discotheque (usually simply known as disco) with a dance floor, laser lighti ...
s. Although the tax was later reduced to 20 percent, "No Dancing Allowed" signs went up all over the country.


Styles


Savoy-style Lindy Hop

Savoy-style Lindy Hop is characterized by a high energy, circular, rotating style. This particular style of Lindy Hop was most frequently associated with living dancers from the 1930s, such as
Frankie Manning Frank Manning (May 26, 1914 – April 27, 2009) was an American dancer, instructor, and choreographer. Manning is considered one of the founders of Lindy Hop, an energetic form of the jazz dance style known as swing. Biography Manning was b ...
. The term "Savoy-style Lindy Hop" applies a generic relationship between all African American Lindy Hoppers (and aficionados of their styles) which ignores the variety and diversity of Lindy Hop in the 1930s and 40s. Lindy Hop historians see clear differences between the Lindy Hop of the early years of its development (the late 1920s) and dancers such as "Shorty" George Snowden, dancers of the 1930s (such as Manning), and then between individual dancers during these periods. Lennart Westerlund described the differences in styles between Manning and Al Minns, the dancer he worked with in the earliest years of the Lindy Hop revival. Al Minns and
Leon James Leon James may refer to: * Leon James (composer) (born 1991), Indian film composer and singer * Leon James (dancer) (died 1970), American Lindy Hop and jazz dancer * Leon James (footballer) (born 2001), Thai footballer {{hndis, James, Leon ...
are often considered authoritative figures in the academic discussion of Lindy Hop, in part for their work with
Marshall Stearns Marshall Winslow Stearns (October 18, 1908 – December 18, 1966) was an American jazz critic and musicologist. He was the founder of the Institute of Jazz Studies. Biography Stearns was born in Cambridge, Massachusetts, to Edith Baker Winslo ...
and Jean Stearns (in their book ''
Jazz Dance Jazz Dance is a performance dance and style that arose in the United States in the early 20th century. Jazz Dance may allude to vernacular Jazz, Broadway or dramatic Jazz. The two types expand on African American vernacular styles of dance that ...
'' and documentary films). Lindy Hop historians also draw clear distinctions between the dancing styles of key women dancers such as
Norma Miller Norma Adele Miller (December 2, 1919 – May 5, 2019) was an American Lindy hop dancer, choreographer, actress, author, and comedian known as the "Queen of Swing". Early life Miller was born in 1919 in Harlem, New York City, to mother Alma, a c ...
and Ann Johnson. The most useful point to be made about this variation within a single community of dancers in one historical moment, is that
vernacular Vernacular is the ordinary, informal, spoken language, spoken form of language, particularly when perceptual dialectology, perceived as having lower social status or less Prestige (sociolinguistics), prestige than standard language, which is mor ...
African American dance, and Lindy Hop in particular, prioritized individual style and creative improvisation and musical interpretation within a particular dance style.


Features

In describing Savoy style Lindy Hop, observers note that the follower is led out of the basic
swingout The swingout is the defining dance move of Lindy Hop. The swingout evolved from the breakaway, which in turn evolved from the Texas Tommy. The first documented mention of the swingout pattern that resembles breakaway was in 1911, to describe a ...
sideways as a default. This is not the case, however, as leading a follow out backwards or forwards is just as likely. Savoy style is also said to be characterized by a pronounced downwards "bounce", which is again something of a misnomer, as different dancers employed varying degrees and types of "bounce", and observers of
Frankie Manning Frank Manning (May 26, 1914 – April 27, 2009) was an American dancer, instructor, and choreographer. Manning is considered one of the founders of Lindy Hop, an energetic form of the jazz dance style known as swing. Biography Manning was b ...
have noted changes in his own dancing style in this respect over the years. Despite these comments, it is important to note that the "bounce" described is characteristic of many African American vernacular dance forms. One of the clearest distinctions between Hollywood and Smooth style Lindy Hop and Savoy style Lindy Hop is the open "
connection Connection may refer to: Mathematics *Connection (algebraic framework) *Connection (mathematics), a way of specifying a derivative of a geometrical object along a vector field on a manifold * Connection (affine bundle) *Connection (composite bun ...
" and relative freedom of the follower to improvise within the structure of the swingout in particular. Again, this technical difference varies between individual dancers, and between teachers today. Historians may also note that Hollywood style, while often characterized by a more intense connection (characterized at its extreme by counter balance), also featured extensive variations and individual improvisation within the swingout in other instances.


African American identity

African American and African dances which are present in the Lindy Hop of these dancers in this period. These may include: * clear angles at the ankle – between leg and foot – and often at the wrist and/or elbow * wide-legged stances for both followers and leaders, particularly in the follower's swivel * Frankie Manning's characteristically "athletic" stance – like a runner spread out in motion, parallel to the ground – echoes African dance * particular "variations" or jazz steps associated with Savoy-style date back to the African communities from which African American slaves were taken (and are discussed in the
History of slavery in the United States The legal institution of human chattel slavery, comprising the enslavement primarily of List of ethnic groups of Africa, Africans and African Americans, was prevalent in the United States of America from its founding in 1776 until 1865 ...
article), including the move "the itch".


'Hollywood Style' Lindy Hop

Sometimes referred to as Dean Collins style, or alternatively, 'Smooth Style' Lindy Hop, is a dance style named after Dean Collins, a
Jewish Jews (, , ), or the Jewish people, are an ethnoreligious group and nation, originating from the Israelites of History of ancient Israel and Judah, ancient Israel and Judah. They also traditionally adhere to Judaism. Jewish ethnicity, rel ...
man who danced at the Savoy Ballroom before 1936 and became a high-profile dancer of this style on the west coast of the United States, appearing in Hollywood films such as '' Hellzapoppin'.'' Dean Collins style of Lindy Hop is a style of dancing was danced at the
Savoy Ballroom The Savoy Ballroom was a large ballroom for music and public dancing located at 596 Lenox Avenue, between 140th and 141st Streets in the Harlem neighborhood of Manhattan, New York City. Lenox Avenue was the main thoroughfare through upper Harlem ...
in Harlem during the 1930s and 1940s. Unfortunately, we do not have footage of the other white dancers who were part of
Whitey's Lindy Hoppers Whitey's Lindy Hoppers was a professional performing group of exceptional swing dancers that was first organized in the late 1920s by Herbert "Whitey" White in the Savoy Ballroom and disbanded in 1942 after its male members were drafted into Worl ...
, making it difficult to observe their dance style. However, we do have footage of Sonny Allen and George Lloyd showcasing a slot dance style, meaning the follower travels in a straight line instead of the more elliptical or circular Savoy-style Lindy Hop. The
swingout The swingout is the defining dance move of Lindy Hop. The swingout evolved from the breakaway, which in turn evolved from the Texas Tommy. The first documented mention of the swingout pattern that resembles breakaway was in 1911, to describe a ...
(the basic step of Lindy) is danced in a position often described as someone about to sit on a stool, thereby bringing their center point of balance closer to the ground. This piked position is the classic look of Hollywood with the back straight and a slight forward tilt. This style originated from Jewel McGown, who was Dean Collins' dance partner and had prior experience as a Balboa dancer before dancing with him.
Sylvia Sykes Sylvia Sykes is an American swing dancer, instructor, judge, and choreographer. She is known for reviving the swing dance style balboa. Career Sykes and her dance partner Jonathan Bixby started dancing together when she was fourteen years old. T ...
and Jonathan Bixby took private lessons from Dean Collins from 1981 to 1984, and passed on his knowledge. Erik Robison and Sylvia Skylar learned by studying under the original dancers from the 1930s and 1940s, such as
Jewel McGowan Jewel McGowan (1921-1962) is best known as a dancer of Lindy Hop, a form of swing dance, in the 1940s and 1950s. She also danced in other, non-swing films, and with modern jazz dance pioneer Jack Cole. She is known among dance aficionados as the fr ...
and
Jean Veloz Jean Grinnell Veloz ( Phelps, March 1, 1924 – January 15, 2023) was an American lindy hop dancer and actress, best known for her roles in 1940s and 1950s musicals. She innovated a style of swing dance that was "silky smooth", now known as "Ho ...
, and watching old Hollywood movies of Dean Collins and his friends in the movies. They were the first to refer to it as 'Hollywood Style'.


LA-style Lindy Hop

A popular variation of Hollywood-Style Lindy Hop called LA-style Lindy Hop has a few technical changes in the
footwork Footwork may refer to: * Footwork (cricket) *Footwork (dance) *Footwork (genre), a genre of electronic music, also known as juke *Footwork (martial arts) Footwork is a martial arts and combat sports term for the general usage of the legs and ...
and fewer steps. The steps are shortened or "cheated" to create this look. The style is geared towards performance and is heavily based on short choreographies.


Groove-style Lindy Hop

A contemporary variation of Lindy Hop is characterized by slower music, a greater emphasis on improvisation, and a distinctive "groove" style. This specific usage of Lindy Hop emerged in the late 90s in San Francisco and Los Angeles as a way to differentiate it from the popular "Hollywood" or "LA Style" of Lindy Hop. The Hollywood or LA Style was typically performed to faster music and allowed for limited improvisation, primarily adhering to predefined patterns. The modern Lindy Hop style broke away from these constraints, providing more freedom for dancers to interpret the music and incorporate their own improvised movements, resulting in a distinct groove-oriented approach. As Frankie Manning put it, "Everyone at the Savoy had their wnstyle." And there was no specific "Savoy style" of Lindy Hopping.


Post-swing era (1950s–1970s)

After World War II, jazz clubs faced taxes and regulations, leading to smaller bands and a shift towards listening rather than dancing. The rise of rock and roll and bebop in the 1950s diminished jazz's popularity for dancing, causing Lindy Hop to fade out of the public eye and be replaced by
Rock and Roll Rock and roll (often written as rock & roll, rock-n-roll, and rock 'n' roll) is a Genre (music), genre of popular music that evolved in the United States during the late 1940s and early 1950s. It Origins of rock and roll, originated from African ...
,
East Coast Swing East Coast Swing (ECS) is a form of social partner dance. It belongs to the group of swing dances. It is danced under fast swing music, including: big band, rock and roll, rockabilly, and boogie-woogie. Yerrington and Outland equated East Coast ...
,
West Coast Swing West Coast Swing is a partner dance with roots in Lindy Hop, characterized by an elastic look that results from its extension-compression technique of partner connection (dance), connection. It is danced primarily in a dance slot, slotted area on ...
, and other styles. From 1949 to 1968, Norma Miller's Jazz Men performed, showcasing their passion for the dance form. Similarly, from 1949 to 1955, Frankie Manning's Congaroo Dancers enchanted audiences with their Lindy Hop skills. After the Savoy Ballroom closed in 1958, Louise "Mama Lou" Parks Dancers took the stage and trained to compete in the Harvest Moon Ball. The Black community continued to dance with new and inventive styles to emerge. Additionally, in a 1959 or 1960 episode of Playboy's Penthouse, Al Minns and
Leon James Leon James may refer to: * Leon James (composer) (born 1991), Indian film composer and singer * Leon James (dancer) (died 1970), American Lindy Hop and jazz dancer * Leon James (footballer) (born 2001), Thai footballer {{hndis, James, Leon ...
showcased jazz dances while
Marshall Stearns Marshall Winslow Stearns (October 18, 1908 – December 18, 1966) was an American jazz critic and musicologist. He was the founder of the Institute of Jazz Studies. Biography Stearns was born in Cambridge, Massachusetts, to Edith Baker Winslo ...
discussed them with
Hugh Hefner Hugh Marston Hefner (April 9, 1926 – September 27, 2017) was an American magazine publisher. He was the founder and editor-in-chief of ''Playboy'' magazine, a publication with revealing photographs and articles. Hefner extended the ''Playboy ...
. Dean Collins and some of his friends were also dedicated dancers, never ceasing their passion for the dance at various venues, including Bobby McGee's, throughout the decades.
Skippy Blair Skippy Blair (March 15, 1924 – June 30, 2021) was an American ballroom dancer credited with popularizing "West Coast Swing." Blair was a member of a group that successfully lobbied the State Legislature in 1988 to have West Coast Swing designated ...
contributed to a new dance scene by opening a dance studio in 1958 to train teachers in the art of
West Coast Swing West Coast Swing is a partner dance with roots in Lindy Hop, characterized by an elastic look that results from its extension-compression technique of partner connection (dance), connection. It is danced primarily in a dance slot, slotted area on ...
. Several published works were also contributed.
Arthur Murray Arthur Murray (born Moses Teichman; April 4, 1895 – March 3, 1991) was an American ballroom dancer and businessman, whose name is most often associated with the dance studio chain that bears his name. Early life and start in dance Arthur Mur ...
's 1954 edition of "How to Become a Good Dancer" included instructions for swing dances such as the Lindy Hop. East Coast Swing and Lindy Hop were equated in Yerrington and Outland's 1961 publication. The 1962 Ballroom Dancebook for Teachers dedicated a chapter to the Lindy Hop.Betty White. ''Ballroom DanceBook for Teachers'', David McKay Company, 1962, pp. 131–144. LCCN 62-18465 By 1960, the Lindy Hop had become known as "swing," as stated in the book "Social Dance" copyrighted in 1969. In film, "
Happy Days ''Happy Days'' is an American television sitcom that aired first-run on the American Broadcasting Company, ABC network from January 15, 1974, to July 19, 1984, with a total of 255 half-hour episodes spanning 11 seasons. Created by Garry Marsha ...
" (1974) showcased fifties rock and roll music, sock hops, the Twist, and even a "Harvest Moon" dance contest. In the made-for-television movie "
Queen of the Stardust Ballroom ''Queen of the Stardust Ballroom'' is an American musical television movie directed by Sam O'Steen and produced by Roger Gimbel, from the teleplay by Jerome Kass. It was broadcast by CBS on February 13, 1975. Maureen Stapleton, Charles Dur ...
" (1975), onscreen dancers such as Dean Collins and
Skippy Blair Skippy Blair (March 15, 1924 – June 30, 2021) was an American ballroom dancer credited with popularizing "West Coast Swing." Blair was a member of a group that successfully lobbied the State Legislature in 1988 to have West Coast Swing designated ...
were featured. The 1970s in the UK witnessed the emergence of diverse music trends, including a revival of original rock 'n' roll pioneers. Additionally, the European Rock'n'Roll Association (ERRA) was founded in 1974 by Italy, France, Germany, and Switzerland to promote rock 'n' roll dancing.


1980s

Lindy Hop was revived in the 1980s by dancers in New York City, California, Stockholm, and the United Kingdom. West Coast Swing, ballroom swing, and Rock'n'Roll enthusiasts were on the hunt for old swing dancers, as old videos emerged, showcasing partner dances that had been lost to time. Each group independently searched for original Lindy Hop dancers and, for those who lived outside of New York City, traveled to New York City to work with them. Al Minns,
Pepsi Bethel Alfred "Pepsi" Bethel (August 31, 1918, Greensboro, North Carolina – August 30, 2002, New York City) was a jazz dancer, choreographer, and leader of his own dance troupe, the Pepsi Bethel Authentic Jazz Dance Theater, which he founded in 1960.T ...
,
Frankie Manning Frank Manning (May 26, 1914 – April 27, 2009) was an American dancer, instructor, and choreographer. Manning is considered one of the founders of Lindy Hop, an energetic form of the jazz dance style known as swing. Biography Manning was b ...
and
Norma Miller Norma Adele Miller (December 2, 1919 – May 5, 2019) was an American Lindy hop dancer, choreographer, actress, author, and comedian known as the "Queen of Swing". Early life Miller was born in 1919 in Harlem, New York City, to mother Alma, a c ...
came out of retirement and toured the world teaching Lindy Hop, later to be joined by dancers such as George and Sugar Sullivan.


British revival

Louise "Mama Lou" Parks was a hostess at the
Savoy Ballroom The Savoy Ballroom was a large ballroom for music and public dancing located at 596 Lenox Avenue, between 140th and 141st Streets in the Harlem neighborhood of Manhattan, New York City. Lenox Avenue was the main thoroughfare through upper Harlem ...
who promised Charles Buchanan that she would continue holding the Lindy Hop portion of the Harvest Moon Ball dance competition after the Savoy Ballroom closed in 1958. She helped preserve the dance by teaching the performance and competition aspects to a new generation of dancers, and in doing so, helped a generation from getting in trouble with the law. After Parks contacted Wolfgang Steuer of the World Rock 'N' Roll Federation in Germany about sponsoring the winners of her Harvest Moon Ball (competitions that ran from 1927-1984) at their international swing dance competition, she started to become more well known in Europe and caught the attention of the British TV company
London Weekend Television London Weekend Television (LWT; now part of the non-franchised ITV London region) was the ITV (TV network), ITV network franchise holder for Greater London and the Home Counties at weekends, broadcasting from Fridays at 5.15 pm (7:00&nbs ...
. "In 1981 they paid for one of Mama Lou's events to be re-staged at Small's Paradise Club on 7th Avenue in Harlem." The program aired in late 1982 on the arts program ''
The South Bank Show ''The South Bank Show'' is a British television arts magazine series originally produced by London Weekend Television and broadcast on ITV between 1978 and 2010. A new version of the series began 27 May 2012 on Sky Arts. Conceived, written, a ...
'' and featured Parks, her Traditional Jazz Dance Company, and the Lindy Hop. The TV show sparked so much interest in the dance that Mama Lou Parks and her Traditional Jazz Dance Company toured the UK in 1983 and 1984. Terry Monaghan and Warren Heyes met each other at her workshops in London in 1983. Afterwards, they decided to form the British dance company the Jiving Lindy Hoppers. In March 1985, the Jiving Lindy Hoppers (Warren Heyes, Terry Monaghan, Ryan Francois, Claudia Gintersdorfer, and Lesley Owen) travelled to New York City on their first research visit. Their goal was primarily to meet Al Minns but when they arrived, they learned that he was in hospital and not expected to live much longer. (Al Minns died on 24 April 1985.) Through Mama Lou Parks, they met Alfred "Pepsi" Bethel and trained with him for two weeks in New York City followed by another week in London. While in NY, they also met two former members of
Whitey's Lindy Hoppers Whitey's Lindy Hoppers was a professional performing group of exceptional swing dancers that was first organized in the late 1920s by Herbert "Whitey" White in the Savoy Ballroom and disbanded in 1942 after its male members were drafted into Worl ...
, Frankie Manning and Norma Miller, dance historians Mura Dehn, Sally Sommer, and Ernie Smith, as well as dance enthusiasts that had just formed the New York Swing Dance Society in 1985. During the 1980s, the Jiving Lindy Hoppers were instrumental in spreading Lindy Hop throughout the UK by teaching and performing at shows, festivals and on TV. In January 1984, the Jiving Lindy Hoppers started teaching Lindy Hop in London.


American revival


New York

In 1981, Al Minns was rediscovered by Sandra Cameron and Larry Schulz during a Louise "Mama Lou" Parks event. They invited him to teach at Sandra's dance studio, the Sandra Cameron Dance Center (SCDC). Another instrumental figure was Paul Grecki, who also worked with Al and later with
Frankie Manning Frank Manning (May 26, 1914 – April 27, 2009) was an American dancer, instructor, and choreographer. Manning is considered one of the founders of Lindy Hop, an energetic form of the jazz dance style known as swing. Biography Manning was b ...
at the studio.Craig R Hutchinson. ''Swing Dancer: Version 1.10, a swing dancer's manual''. December 1998. Potomac Swing Dance Club, Inc., pp. 5.1–5 In 1982, Al Minns was convinced to start teaching Lindy Hop at SCDC in New York City. Al Minns' early students formed the New York Swing Dance Society, established in 1985. Frankie Manning continued teaching at the SCDC in 1985, carrying on where Al Minns had left off. As the demand for his dance instruction grew, Frankie Manning started to travel and teach worldwide, sharing his joy of Lindy Hop.


California

In 1983-1984, Californian dancers Erin Stevens and Steven Mitchell had taken lessons from Al Minns at SCDC and were actively searching for original Savoy dancers after learning about Frankie Manning through Bob Crease. Stevens discovered three listings for the name Manning in a New York phone book. Calling the first Frankie Manning, she asked, "Are you Frankie Manning the dancer?" Initially, he replied, "No, I'm Frankie Manning the postal worker." However, after a pause, he added, "But I used to be a dancer." Stevens had indeed found the Manning she was looking for. Erin and Steven visited Frankie Manning and convinced him to begin instructing Lindy Hop an experience he cherished as his "first real teaching experience". They played a crucial role in spreading Lindy Hop to California and other locations within the US.


Swedish revival

In 1984, three members of
The Rhythm Hot Shots The Hot Shots is a collective name for two closely related Swedish dance companies based in Stockholm, Sweden: The Rhythm Hot Shots and the Harlem Hot Shots. The Hot Shots specialize in faithful reproductions of African-American dance scenes in A ...
from Sweden, namely Lennart Westerlund, Anders Lind, and Henning Sorenson, embarked on a journey to New York. Their purpose was to seek out one of
Whitey's Lindy Hoppers Whitey's Lindy Hoppers was a professional performing group of exceptional swing dancers that was first organized in the late 1920s by Herbert "Whitey" White in the Savoy Ballroom and disbanded in 1942 after its male members were drafted into Worl ...
and specifically learn from Al Minns. They brought Al Minns to Stockholm in 1984, where he held a dance workshop for the newly created Swedish Swing Society. When Al Minns died in 1985, they brought Frankie Manning and other original Savoy Ballroom dancers to Stockholm. The Swedish Swing Society and The Rhythm Hot Shots helped spread Lindy Hop throughout Sweden and the rest of the world, partly through the
Herräng Dance Camp Herräng Dance Camp (commonly abbreviated HDC, officially Herräng Dance Camp Aktiebolag) is the largest annual dance camp that focuses on lindy hop, Boogie-woogie (dance), boogie woogie, tap dance, jazz dance, and Balboa (dance), balboa. It is ...
held every summer since 1982 in the town of
Herräng Herräng () is the northernmost locality in Norrtälje Municipality, Stockholm County, Sweden, with 422 inhabitants in 2010. It is located 40 kilometres north of the municipal seat Norrtälje along the coast of Singöfjärden, a bay on Roslagen. ...
.


1990s–2010s

On Broadway, "
Black and Blue ''Black and Blue'' is the thirteenth studio album by the English rock band the Rolling Stones, released on 23 April 1976, by Rolling Stones Records. This album was the first record after former guitarist Mick Taylor quit in December 1974. ...
" (1989) garnered Frankie Manning a Tony Award for his choreography. The Broadway production of "
Swing! ''Swing!'' is a musical conceived by Paul Kelly with music by various artists. It celebrates the music of the Swing era of jazz (1930s–1946), including many well-known tunes by artists like Duke Ellington, William "Count" Basie, Benny Goodm ...
" (1999) showcased Lindy Hoppers, Latin swing dancers, and country swing stars and continues to be performed worldwide. In film, Frankie Manning choreographed a dance sequence for "
Malcolm X Malcolm X (born Malcolm Little, later el-Hajj Malik el-Shabazz; May 19, 1925 – February 21, 1965) was an African American revolutionary, Islam in the United States, Muslim minister and human rights activist who was a prominent figur ...
" (1992), while "
Swing Kids The Swing Youth () were a youth counterculture of jazz and Swing (genre), swing lovers in Nazi Germany, Germany formed in Hamburg in 1939. Primarily active in Hamburg and Berlin, they were composed of 14- to 21-year-old Germans, mostly middl ...
" (1993) portrayed the swing dance movement in Nazi Germany, capturing the essence of swing dancing. Notably, Gap aired television commercials titled "Khakis Swing" (1999 and 2000) that featured swing dancing.


Music

*
Swing revival The swing revival, also called retro swing and neo-swing, was a renewed interest in swing music and Lindy Hop dance, beginning around 1989 and reaching a peak in the 1990s. The music was generally rooted in the big bands of the swing era, swing e ...
: The 1990s witnessed a significant swing revival, specifically with the popularity of
neo-swing The swing revival, also called retro swing and neo-swing, was a renewed interest in swing music and Lindy Hop dance, beginning around 1989 and reaching a peak in the 1990s. The music was generally rooted in the big bands of the swing era of the ...
. Bands from various genres such as rock, punk, ska, and rockabilly emerged, including the
Cherry Poppin' Daddies The Cherry Poppin' Daddies are an American swing music, swing and ska band established in Eugene, Oregon, in 1989. Formed by singer-songwriter Steve Perry (Oregon musician), Steve Perry and bassist Dan Schmid, the band has experienced numerous ...
,
Big Bad Voodoo Daddy Big Bad Voodoo Daddy is a contemporary swing revival band from Southern California. Their notable singles include "Go Daddy-O", "You & Me & the Bottle Makes 3 Tonight (Baby)", and "Mr. Pinstripe Suit". The band played at the Super Bowl XXXIII h ...
, and
Squirrel Nut Zippers Squirrel Nut Zippers is an American swing and jazz band formed in 1993 in Chapel Hill, North Carolina, by James "Jimbo" Mathus (vocals and guitar), Tom Maxwell (vocals and guitar), Katharine Whalen (vocals, banjo, ukulele), Chris Phillips (d ...
, leading the way. This revival successfully reintroduced swing music to the mainstream, capturing the attention of a new generation of listeners and Retro Swing Lindy Hop dancers. * Retro swing: Alongside the swing revival, there was a resurgence of interest in retro styles. This led to the popularity of swing music and dance styles such as Lindy Hop being revived in its traditional form, with bands and artists embracing the swing genre and creating new music that captured the essence of classic swing from the 1920s to the 1940s. This style is still alive today.


Dance camps, conventions and exchanges

There are retro swing Lindy Hop communities throughout the world. The concept of a ''Lindy exchange'', a gathering of Lindy Hop dancers in one city for several days to dance with visitors and locals, enables different communities to share their ideas with others. The first Lindy exchange was called "The Weekend", and occurred on December 4–6, 1998, in California, between the cities of
Chicago Chicago is the List of municipalities in Illinois, most populous city in the U.S. state of Illinois and in the Midwestern United States. With a population of 2,746,388, as of the 2020 United States census, 2020 census, it is the List of Unite ...
,
Illinois Illinois ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the Midwestern United States, Midwestern United States. It borders on Lake Michigan to its northeast, the Mississippi River to its west, and the Wabash River, Wabash and Ohio River, Ohio rivers to its ...
, and
San Francisco San Francisco, officially the City and County of San Francisco, is a commercial, Financial District, San Francisco, financial, and Culture of San Francisco, cultural center of Northern California. With a population of 827,526 residents as of ...
, California. Many annual Lindy Hop conventions are held across the world, such as Camp Hollywood in Los Angeles, International Lindy Hop Championships on the US east coast, and Rock That Swing Festival in München. The International Lindy Hop Championships (ILHC) are a popular American venue. The ILHC holds qualifiers for people from several continents: North America, Latin America, Europe, and Asia. The ILHC hosts both virtual and in-person competitions, with multiple sub-categories for both. Dances performed for the ILHC are posted on their
YouTube YouTube is an American social media and online video sharing platform owned by Google. YouTube was founded on February 14, 2005, by Steve Chen, Chad Hurley, and Jawed Karim who were three former employees of PayPal. Headquartered in ...
channel. The New York Lindy Exchange (NYLX) is a popular event destination for Lindy dancers. The NYLX is a non-competitive, social gathering for Lindy dance experts and Lindy dance beginners. The NYLX usually has multiple venues during their weekend including classes, master classes, social dances, and parties. Lindy dances are also popular in Houston, Texas, with both the Houston Swing Dance Society (HSDS) and Lindyfest occurring there. There are numerous independent events as well. Lindy dancers commonly use directories to find events in their area, or notable foreign events. SwingPlanIt is a website that hosts dates for events all over the world.


Since 2010

The Lindy Hop community remains vibrant and active in the present day, with enthusiasts participating in various events worldwide. Lindy Hop camps and competitions bring together dancers of all levels, providing opportunities for learning, connection, and friendly competition. These gatherings foster a sense of camaraderie among dancers who share a passion for the lively and energetic Lindy Hop style. Participants engage in workshops, social dances, performances, and showcases, showcasing their skills and celebrating the rich history of swing dancing. The Lindy Hop community continues to preserve and promote this dynamic and joyful dance form for future generations to enjoy. Beginning in 2015, the community went through a reckoning over sexual violence after an influential instructor, Steven Mitchell, was accused by multiple women of sexually assaulting them. In the film industry, "
So You Think You Can Dance ''So You Think You Can Dance'' is a franchise of reality television shows in which contestants compete in dance. The first series of the franchise, created by '' Idols'' producers Simon Fuller and Nigel Lythgoe, premiered in July 2005 and has ...
" (2005-2010) featured Lindy Hop performances throughout the seasons. Additionally, the documentary " Alive and Kicking" (2016), produced by Susan Glatzer, explored the world of swing dancing. In 2022, ''Sw!ng Out,'' a swing dance performance choreographed by Caleb Teicher, started touring in the US.


Music

Electro swing Electro swing, or swing house, is an electronic dance music Electronic dance music (EDM), also referred to as dance music or club music, is a broad range of percussive electronic music genres originally made for nightclubs, raves, and Lis ...
, also known as swing house gained popularity during this period, blending swing music with electronic beats and production techniques. It combined the vintage sound of swing with modern electronic,
house A house is a single-unit residential building. It may range in complexity from a rudimentary hut to a complex structure of wood, masonry, concrete or other material, outfitted with plumbing, electrical, and heating, ventilation, and air c ...
and
hip hop Hip-hop or hip hop (originally disco rap) is a popular music genre that emerged in the early 1970s from the African-American community of New York City. The style is characterized by its synthesis of a wide range of musical techniques. Hip- ...
dance music. This revival successfully reintroduced swing music to the mainstream through venues such as
TikTok TikTok, known in mainland China and Hong Kong as Douyin (), is a social media and Short-form content, short-form online video platform owned by Chinese Internet company ByteDance. It hosts user-submitted videos, which may range in duration f ...
, capturing the attention of a new generation of listeners and retro swing Lindy Hop dancers.


See also

*
Jitterbug Jitterbug is a generalized term used to describe Swing (dance), swing dancing. It is often synonymous with the lindy hop dance but might include elements of the Jive (dance), jive, east coast swing, collegiate shag, Charleston (dance), charlesto ...


References


Further reading

* Batchelor, Christian, ''This Thing Called Swing''. Christian Batchelor Books, 1997, * DeFrantz, Thomas. ''Dancing Many Drums: Excavations in African American Dance''. Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press, 2001. * Emery, Lynne Fauley. ''Black Dance in the United States from 1619 to 1970''. California: National Press Books, 1972. * Friedland, LeeEllen. "Social Commentary in African-American Movement Performance." In Brenda Farnell (ed.), ''Human Action Signs in Cultural Context: The Visible and the Invisible in Movement and Dance''. London: Scarecrow Press, 1995. 136 – 57. * Giordano, Ralph G. ''Social Dancing in America: A History and Reference, Volume 2, Lindy Hop to Hip Hop, 1901–2000''. Greenwood, 2006. * Gottschild, Brenda Dixon. ''Digging the Africanist Presence in American Performance''. Connecticut and London: Greenwood Press, 1996. * Hancock, Black Hawk. ''American Allegory: Lindy Hop and the Racial Imagination''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2013. * Hazzard-Gordon, Katrina. ''Jookin': The Rise of Social Dance Formations in African-American Culture''. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1990. * Jackson, Jonathan David. "Improvisation in African-American Vernacular Dancing." ''Dance Research Journal'' 33.2 (2001/2002): 40 – 53. * Malone, Jacqui. ''Steppin' on the Blues: The Visible Rhythms of African American Dance''. Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1996. * * Stevens, Erin and Tamara. ''Swing Dancing''. The American Dance Floor Series, Greenwood, 2011, * Szwed, John F., and Morton Marks. "The Afro-American Transformation of European Set Dances and Dance Suites." ''Dance Research Journal'' 20.1 (1988): 29 – 36. *Spring, Howard. "Swing and the Lindy Hop: Dance, Venue, Media, and Tradition". ''American Music'', Vol. 15, No. 2 (Summer 1997), pp. 183–207. * Thomas, Amy. ''Infinity Dance: The Move That Never Ends''. California: National Press Books, 2006.


External links


"Savoystyle Archives of early Lindy Hop"
resource for Lindy Hop history

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