Life Replacement Narratives
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Life replacement narratives or life extension narratives refer to three
Korean shamanic narrative Korean mythology () is the group of myths told by historical and modern Koreans. There are two types: the written, literary mythology in traditional histories, mostly about the founding monarchs of various historical kingdoms, and the much larg ...
s chanted during
religious rituals Religion is a range of social-cultural systems, including designated behaviors and practices, morals, beliefs, worldviews, texts, sanctified places, prophecies, ethics, or organizations, that generally relate humanity to supernatural, transce ...
, all from different regional traditions of mythology but with a similar core story: the ''Menggam bon-puri'' of the
Jeju Jeju may refer to: South Korea * Jeju Island (Jejudo), South Korea * Jeju Province (formerly transliterated Cheju), a province of South Korea comprising Jejudo ** Jeju City, its capital ** Jeju dog, a dog native to Jejudo ** Jeju language ** The ...
tradition, the ''Jangja-puri'' of the
Jeolla Jeolla Province (, ) was one of the historical Eight Provinces of Korea during the Kingdom of Joseon in southwestern Korea. It consisted of the modern South Korean provinces of North Jeolla, South Jeolla and Gwangju Metropolitan City as wel ...
tradition, and the ''Honswi-gut'' narrative of the
South Hamgyong South Hamgyong Province (, ''Hamgyŏngnamdo''; ) is a Administrative divisions of North Korea, province of North Korea. The province was formed in 1896 from the southern half of the former Hamgyong Province, Hamgyong Province, remained a provin ...
tradition. As
oral literature Oral literature, orature, or folk literature is a genre of literature that is spoken or sung in contrast to that which is written, though much oral literature has been transcribed. There is no standard definition, as anthropologists have used v ...
, all three narratives exist in multiple versions. In all three narratives, a man (or men) is forewarned of his impending death and makes offerings to the ''chasa'', the gods of death who kill those whose time is due and take away their souls to the afterlife. The ''chasa'' unwittingly accept the offerings before realizing that they have accepted gifts from the man that they were supposed to kill. As they cannot ignore his gifts, they decide to spare his life and take the soul of another human or animal in his place. Other parts of the story differ significantly between the three narratives. In the ''Menggam bon-puri'', the man is a hunter who is warned by a benevolent skull, which also makes him rich. In the ''Jangja-puri'', the man is an unpleasant miser whose warning comes in the form of a dream interpreted by his daughter-in-law. In the ''Honswi-gut'', which is the least studied, the human figures are three brothers who are also warned by a skull. The
myths Myth is a genre of folklore consisting primarily of narratives that play a fundamental role in a society. For scholars, this is very different from the vernacular usage of the term "myth" that refers to a belief that is not true. Instead, the ...
are important in their religious context because they demonstrate the susceptibility of the gods to both gifts and human empathy, and therefore establish the principles and efficacy of shamanic ritual. The importance of the skull in two of the three narratives may reflect an ancient practice of
skull worship ''Skull Worship'' is the sixth studio album by American psychedelic rock band the Warlocks, released in 2013 by record label Zap Banana. Reception ''Skull Worship'' has been generally well received by critics. AllMusic wrote: "the album is a ...
. The narratives' relationships to folktales, to other shamanic myths, and to a medieval Buddhist tale with a similar story have also been examined.


Nomenclature

There is no agreement on what term to use to refer to the three narratives as a category. In all three, the central human figure avoids his imminent death by making offerings to the ''chasa'', the gods of death, who spare him and—in most versions—take another soul in his place. Some scholars emphasize the prolongation of life and refer to "life extension" () myths or narratives, while others stress the fact that a life is taken in place of another and speak of "life replacement" () narratives. Choi Won-oh uses the term "''chasa'' veneration" (, ) narratives. This category includes not only the three life replacement narratives but also the '' Jimgaje-gut'' narrative of
South Hamgyong Province South Hamgyong Province (, ''Hamgyŏngnamdo''; ) is a province of North Korea. The province was formed in 1896 from the southern half of the former Hamgyong Province, remained a province of Korea until 1945, then became a province of North Kor ...
, a myth in which the ''chasa'' only serve to explain the circumstances of three mysterious deaths without extending anyone's life.


Narratives

Korean shamanic narrative Korean mythology () is the group of myths told by historical and modern Koreans. There are two types: the written, literary mythology in traditional histories, mostly about the founding monarchs of various historical kingdoms, and the much larg ...
s are
myth Myth is a genre of folklore consisting primarily of narratives that play a fundamental role in a society. For scholars, this is very different from the vernacular usage of the term "myth" that refers to a belief that is not true. Instead, the ...
ological stories chanted by
shamans Shamanism is a spiritual practice that involves a practitioner (shaman) interacting with the Spirit (supernatural entity), spirit world through Altered state of consciousness, altered states of consciousness, such as trance. The goal of th ...
as part of rituals called '' gut'', in which various deities are invoked. They constitute the mythology of the religion of
Korean shamanism Korean shamanism, also known as () is a religion from Korea. Religious studies, Scholars of religion classify it as a folk religion and sometimes regard it as one facet of a broader Korean vernacular religion distinct from Buddhism, Taoism, Dao ...
. In
Jeju Island Jeju Island (Jeju language, Jeju/) is South Korea's largest island, covering an area of , which is 1.83% of the total area of the country. Alongside outlying islands, it is part of Jeju Province and makes up the majority of the province. The i ...
, works of the genre are called ''
bon-puri The ''bon-puri'' ( Jeju and , ) are Korean shamanic narrative recited in the shamanic rituals of Jeju Island, to the south of the Korean Peninsula. Similar shamanic narratives are known in mainland Korea as well, but are only occasionally refe ...
'', literally "origin recitation." In mainland Korea, the term ''puri'' "recitation" is common but not universal; they may also simply be named after the ''gut'' ritual in which they are performed. In all three life replacement narratives of Korea, the main figure cheats death by sacrificing to the '' chasa'' (): a group of gods who are commissioned by the god
Yama Yama (), also known as Kāla and Dharmarāja, is the Hindu god of death and justice, responsible for the dispensation of law and punishment of sinners in his abode, Naraka. He is often identified with Dharmadeva, the personification of ''Dharm ...
, king of death, to kill those who are due to die and take their souls to the afterlife. Yama and his messengers are both
Buddhist Buddhism, also known as Buddhadharma and Dharmavinaya, is an Indian religion and List of philosophies, philosophical tradition based on Pre-sectarian Buddhism, teachings attributed to the Buddha, a wandering teacher who lived in the 6th or ...
divinities, who were
adopted Adoption is a process whereby a person assumes the parenting of another, usually a child, from that person's biological or legal parent or parents. Legal adoptions permanently transfer all rights and responsibilities, along with filiation, from ...
by Korean shamanism and eventually became associated with Korean beliefs not found in Buddhism.


''Menggam bon-puri''

The
Jeju Island Jeju Island (Jeju language, Jeju/) is South Korea's largest island, covering an area of , which is 1.83% of the total area of the country. Alongside outlying islands, it is part of Jeju Province and makes up the majority of the province. The i ...
narrative is titled ''Menggam bon-puri'' after Menggam, a deity invoked in one of the rituals in which the narrative is recited. It is one of twelve "general ''bon-puri''", which are narratives featuring deities worshipped throughout Jeju Island, and which are recited by all Jeju
shamans Shamanism is a spiritual practice that involves a practitioner (shaman) interacting with the Spirit (supernatural entity), spirit world through Altered state of consciousness, altered states of consciousness, such as trance. The goal of th ...
. Some shamans also title it the ''Samani bon-puri'', after the primary human figure of the myth. As of 2010, at least ten different versions of the ''Menggam bon-puri'' were known to researchers, transcribed between 1962 and 2008. In most versions, a man named Saman loses his parents at an early age and is reduced to beggary. He marries a fellow beggar. One day, his wife cuts off her hair and tells Saman to go sell it to buy food, but he purchases a gun instead to make a living as a hunter. Unfortunately, he is inexperienced at hunting and struggles. While in the mountains, Saman encounters an ancient skull. In most versions, this is the skull of the gun's original owner, who was the son of a
state councilor A State Councillor of the People's Republic of China () serves as a senior vice leader within the State Council and shares responsibilities with the Vice Premiers in assisting the Premier in the administration and coordination of governmental a ...
. How the owner died varies depending on the version. According to one shaman, he shot himself accidentally with the gun; in other versions, he died of a gust or of cold and hunger, or was killed by a robber who stole the gun. How Saman encounters the skull also varies. In some versions, the skull reveals his identity in a dream while Saman is sleeping in the mountains, then comes rolling to him the next day. Another version states that the skull speaks to Saman during the night and tells him to dig him out of the earth. In all versions, Saman takes the skull with him. He first keeps it outside the house, worrying about what his wife would think, but ultimately brings it home. Saman makes offerings to the skull every festival day, and soon, he has great success in hunting and becomes rich. One day, the ''chasa'' descend to kill Saman and bring his soul to the afterlife, either because his ancestors were angry at Saman worshipping the skull instead, or because Saman was always fated to die at the age of thirty or thirty-three. Forewarning the man of his impending death, the skull tells him to hold a ''gut'' ritual and to set out offerings for the ''chasa''. The ''chasa'' unwittingly partake of the offerings and decide to spare him, taking the soul of other people or creatures instead: sometimes three horses, sometimes another person who shares the name "Saman", and sometimes another person with the similar name "Oman". Ultimately, the ''chasa'' forge Saman's allotted lifespan given in the records of the afterlife, often by adding a line to the number "thirty" (三 ) to make it "three thousand" (三 ) so that he lives for three thousand years. In some versions, either the ''chasas replacement of Saman's soul with another or their extension of Saman's lifespan is omitted. In several versions, the ''chasa'' (either the ''chasa'' who spared him or Gangnim, a different ''chasa'') eventually capture Saman by washing
soot Soot ( ) is a mass of impure carbon particles resulting from the incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons. Soot is considered a hazardous substance with carcinogenic properties. Most broadly, the term includes all the particulate matter produced b ...
in a river. When Saman asks them what they are doing, they respond that they are cleaning the soot to make it white. When Saman says that he has not heard anything as ridiculous in his three thousand years of life, the ''chasa'' apprehend him and take him to the afterlife. The ''Menggam bon-puri'' is recited during two rituals for different gods: the ''aek-magi'' rite, which is dedicated to the ''chasa'' and is a component of various larger ceremonies, and the ''menggam-je'' ritual, dedicated specifically to the god Menggam and to the agricultural goddess Segyeong. The purpose of the ''aek-magi'' (from
Korean Korean may refer to: People and culture * Koreans, people from the Korean peninsula or of Korean descent * Korean culture * Korean language **Korean alphabet, known as Hangul or Korean **Korean dialects **See also: North–South differences in t ...
''aek'' "misfortune" and ''magi'' "preventing") is to ask the ''chasa'' to forestall misfortune, including the death they bring. Over the course of the ritual, the shaman specifies the household that is to be saved from misfortune through this particular ''aek-magi'', invites the gods to partake in the sacrifice, and finally delivers the message of the ''chasa'' to the worshippers. The ''menggam-je'' is a small-scale ritual traditionally held on the first month of the year to ensure success in agriculture, husbandry, and hunting. The deity Menggam appears to have been a hunting god of the mountains, whose divine functions expanded to animal husbandry and other livelihoods as hunting declined in Jeju Island. In the narrative, Menggam—the god who brings success to hunters—is represented by the skull.


''Jangja-puri''

The ''Jangja-puri'' is the life replacement narrative of the
Jeolla Jeolla Province (, ) was one of the historical Eight Provinces of Korea during the Kingdom of Joseon in southwestern Korea. It consisted of the modern South Korean provinces of North Jeolla, South Jeolla and Gwangju Metropolitan City as wel ...
shamanic tradition. As of 2017, thirty-eight versions were known, transcribed between 1966 and 2006. The early parts of the myth are the same in most versions. Sama-jangja, the namesake of the narrative, is an unpleasant and miserly rich man (Korean ''jangja'' "very rich person"). One version describes his behavior in the following terms:
When loaning grain to others, he loaned with a small measure and received with a large measure; He would loan money in the morning and demand repayment in the evening; He sold rice mixed with sand, and water in place of
soy sauce Soy sauce (sometimes called soya sauce in British English) is a liquid condiment of China, Chinese origin, traditionally made from a fermentation (food), fermented paste of soybeans, roasted cereal, grain, brine, and ''Aspergillus oryzae'' or ''A ...
; He gave only the outer leaves of
kimchi Kimchi (; ) is a traditional Korean side dish (''banchan'') consisting of salted and fermented vegetables, most often napa cabbage or Korean radish. A wide selection of seasonings are used, including '' gochugaru'' (Korean chili powder), ...
to others; He kicked pregnant dogs in their sides and threw the dredges of sesame seeds in drainage ditches; He put gourds on the kitchen table and sharpened knives on the kitchen hearth; He gave false information, causing local officials to chase after empty errands; He would have a large ox brought to his field and then drive it off like a dog without even using it; He had so many sins that one cannot speak of them all.
Because of his sins—either a failure to worship his ancestors, his abuse of fellow humans, or both—Sama-jangja is doomed to die. One night, he has a dream foreshadowing his impending death, but only his daughter-in-law correctly predicts its meaning. Eventually, Sama-jangja understands that he is about to die. He begins to do charity and prepares a large ''gut'' ritual for the ''chasa''. As in the other narratives, the ''chasa'' unwittingly accept the sacrifice. But the ending differs greatly. In some versions, the ''chasa'' simply decide not to take anybody, and Sama-jangja lives a long life. In most others, the ''chasa'' spare Sama-jangja and take either his neighbor Uma-jangja or a horse instead. In many versions, the ''chasa'' take the horse after their deceit involving Uma-jangja is discovered (or vice versa). In one account, they resort to the horse after being defeated by the household gods of Uma-jangja. Finally, some versions have Sama-jangja dying and being punished after all, either because the gods discover the ''chasas schemes or because the horse in the afterlife eventually turns into Sama-jangja and the living Sama-jangja turns into the horse. The ''Jangja-puri'' is sung during the ''ssitgim-gut'', the funeral ritual of Jeolla shamanism in which the soul of the deceased is purified and dispatched to the afterlife.


''Honswi-gut''

The ''Honswi-gut'' narrative was chanted by shamans of
South Hamgyong Province South Hamgyong Province (, ''Hamgyŏngnamdo''; ) is a province of North Korea. The province was formed in 1896 from the southern half of the former Hamgyong Province, remained a province of Korea until 1945, then became a province of North Kor ...
(now in
North Korea North Korea, officially the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK), is a country in East Asia. It constitutes the northern half of the Korea, Korean Peninsula and borders China and Russia to the north at the Yalu River, Yalu (Amnok) an ...
) in the Honswi-gut, a ritual intended to cure severe illnesses. Whether the ritual was believed to cure the illnesses of adults or of children is unclear. Two versions are known: one transcribed in 1926 and titled ''Hwangcheon-honsi'', and the other transcribed in 1965 from shamans who had fled to South Korea and titled ''Honswi-gut''. The 1926 version is summarized below. Three impoverished brothers—Songnim-dong, I-dong, and Sama-dong—start farming. One day, they discover an abandoned skull. They bring it home and make offerings to it three times a day, and they soon become rich. After five or six years, the skull begins to shed tears. When the brothers ask why, the skull reveals that the ''chasa'' are coming within three days and tells them to prepare a great feast with the fortune that they have been given. They do so, and the ''chasa'' arrive and eat the food. The brothers then reveal themselves, and the ''chasa'' spare them. Songnim-dong's soul is replaced by a yellow cow; I-dong's, by a raincoat; Sama-dong's, by a bronze bowl. The brothers live long lives and die at the age of eighty-one. After their death, they become gods who are prayed to in the Honswi-gut. The 1965 version is largely similar, except that the brothers bury the skull instead of worshipping it, that there is no mention of the brothers becoming rich, and that the ''chasa'' take the souls of other people who share their names and dates of birth, not cows and objects. Large-scale shamanic rituals are no longer practiced in North Korea, and the South Hamgyong shamans who fled the
division of Korea The division of Korea began at the end of World War II on 2 September 1945, with the establishment of a Soviet occupation zone and a US occupation zone. These zones developed into separate governments, named the Democratic People's Republic of ...
did not pass down their rituals. The narrative may therefore no longer be in oral transmission. A 2010 listing of academic work on life replacement narratives did not include any study specifically about the Hamgyong narrative.


Religious significance

The life-exchanging myths are important in that they "clearly demonstrate the nature of the deities and the value systems of oreanshamanic belief," with even the gods being depicted as being greatly swayed by ''injeong'': a term referring simultaneously to offerings and to the emotion of '' jeong'', or feelings of compassion and empathy, that both gods and humans are thought to share. Yun Kyoim notes that the ''Menggam bon-puri'' establishes principles crucial to Jeju ritual: "the themes of reciprocity... the rules of gift exchange—to give, receive, and return." The reciprocity between the human and divine begins with Saman's encounter with the skull. Once the skull successfully creates a social bond with Saman by discussing how he had once hunted with the very same gun, the human and the deity establish a reciprocal relationship from which both sides prosper. The importance of reciprocity continues in Saman's dealings with the ''chasa''. Once the ''chasa'' realize they have unwittingly accepted Saman's sacrifice, they "cannot ignore his plea." The ensuing favor from the ''chasa'' is not a ''
quid pro quo ''Quid pro quo'' (Latin: "something for something") is a Latin phrase used in English to mean an exchange of goods or services, in which one transfer is contingent upon the other; "a favor for a favor". Phrases with similar meanings include: " ...
'', but a gift of divine generosity provoked by the ''injeong'' that Saman has for the gods. The narrative thus demonstrates that proper worship of the gods can overcome human destiny. Shamans themselves say that the purpose of reciting the narrative during the ''aek-magi'' ritual is to remind the ''chasa'' of the favor they once showed Saman, and to invite them to show similar generosity to the worshippers involved in the current ritual. Indeed, the shaman strangles a red rooster during the ''aek-magi''. In cases of rites held for severe illness, the shaman mounts a straw model of the patient on a horse and chases the animal away; it must not return to the house. The lives of the rooster and the horse are offered to the ''chasa'' as replacements for human death, just as Saman's death was replaced by the death of others in the myth. The narrative is ultimately followed by the shaman's delivery of the ''chasas message as divined through the ''
mengdu The ''mengdu'' (Jeju language, Jeju and ), also called the three ''mengdu'' () and the three ''mengdu'' of the sun and moon (), are a set of three kinds of brass ritual devices—a pair of knives, a bell, and divination implements—which are th ...
''. In one 2002 ''aek-magi'', the ''chasa'' announced that the worshipping family would be exempt from an upcoming visit to the village, and explained why:
We can't ignore The offered sacrifice. As your sincerity was utmost, We accepted the sacrifice.
The myth of Saman thus "flows over into the reality" of the worshippers. Like its Jeju equivalent, the ''Jangja-puri'' demonstrates that the gods of death can be swayed through ''injeong'', even for a man as sinful as Sama-jangja, and therefore affirms the ritual efficacy of the ''ssitgim-gut'' funeral. The narrative's detailed portrayal of the afterlife and its gods as fundamentally akin to the world of the living, complete with corrupt officials, may seek to reduce the funeral attendees' fears and anxieties towards death. Hong Tae-han also argues that in the majority of versions where Sama-jangja survives, he serves as a contrast to the person for whom the funeral is being held—who, unlike in the myth, will never cheat death. As the shaman sings the ''Jangja-puri'', the bereaved weep and reach emotional
catharsis Catharsis is from the Ancient Greek word , , meaning "purification" or "cleansing", commonly used to refer to the purification and purgation of thoughts and emotions by way of expressing them. The desired result is an emotional state of renewal an ...
. The ''Jangja-puri'' has also been described as the
origin myth An origin myth is a type of myth that explains the beginnings of a natural or social aspect of the world. Creation myths are a type of origin myth narrating the formation of the universe. However, numerous cultures have stories that take place a ...
of the ''ssitgim-gut'' funeral itself, explaining the purpose of the ritual. In several versions, Sama-jangja holds a funeral for the horse who has taken his place. In one version, the horse appears in Sama-jangja's dreams to speak of its torment; the man then feels terrible pain. A shaman tells him to hold a ''ssitgim-gut'' for the horse. The funeral successfully frees the dead horse from its punishment in the afterlife and turns it into a human, relieving the animal of its sorrows and curing Sama-jangja as well.
With the first day's ''gut'', the iron plating falls from the horse's head; With the second day's ''ssitgim-gut'', the great
cangue A cangue ( ), in Chinese referred to as a jia or tcha () is a device that was used for public humiliation and corporal punishment in East Asia Jamyang NorbuFrom Darkness to Dawn, site '' Phayul.com'', May 19, 2009. and some other parts of South ...
falls from the neck; With the third ''ssitgim-gut'', the netting falls from the body; With the fourth ''ssitgim-gut'', the cuffs break on its hands; With the fifth ''ssitgim-gut'', the shackles fall from its feet; The horse leaves, having become a human; Its archenemy ama-jangjahas become its benefactor.
This section of the ''Jangja-puri'' thus explains the theology of the ''ssitgim-gut''. Upon death, the grief and resentment ('' han'') of the deceased soul—physically represented in the narrative by the shackles on the dead horse—bring misfortune upon the living. The funeral is necessary to allow the dead soul to be cleansed of its sorrows, and thereby to protect the living from misfortune. The life replacement narratives also emphasize the practical ethics of Korean shamanism, such as the value of charity. The reason that Sama-jangja and (in many versions) Saman are doomed to die early is because they neglect their ancestors, their neighbors, or both, despite possessing great wealth. As the ''chasa'' tell Sama-jangja's family in one version:
"If you would save your father Do not scorn those who have nothing, and feed the hungry.""느그 부친을 살릴라면/없난 사람 괄시를 말고 배고픈 인간 밥을 주라."
Implying a connection between wealth, sinful behavior, and resulting premature death, the narratives urge the rich to fulfill their social responsibilities towards both their ancestors and their neighbors—or indeed, to actively reduce their wealth through ritual or charity—in order to prevent such a death.


Connections to other narratives

Scholars have examined both the connections between the three modern life replacement narratives, and their relationship to other stories known in Korea. The three modern narratives may all descend from a single source. Notably, although Jeju is the southernmost part of Korea and Hamgyong is a far northern periphery, both the ''Menggam bon-puri'' and the ''Honswi-gut'' feature a benevolent skull. Choi Won-oh argues that this implies that the life replacement narratives stemmed from an ancient culture that practiced skull veneration (which is no longer known in Korea), with the ''Jangja-puri'' narrative being an innovation. The idiosyncrasies of each of the three narratives may be due to influence from other shamanic narratives, or from local folklore. For instance, the initial relationship between Saman and the skull—in which the latter supernaturally reveals himself as a man who died a violent death, then rewards his human devotee by making him a great hunter—is found only in the ''Menggam bon-puri''. This story closely matches the conventions of Jeju village-shrine ''bon-puri'' (myths dedicated to patron gods of villages) and ancestral ''bon-puri'' (myths dedicated to patron gods of specific families or occupations). Many of the gods invoked in the latter types of myths are also souls of those who met untimely deaths who manifest in a human's dream to express their need to be worshipped, then reward their devotees with prosperity. Sometimes, even specific narrative details are shared; a ''Menggam bon-puri'' version describes the skull jumping into the skirt of Saman's wife in terms very similar to one village-shrine ''bon-puris description of a snake-god leaping into the skirt of his worshipper's wife. Thus, the ''Menggam bon-puri'' myth may originally have been the ancestral ''bon-puri'' of hunters, which eventually entered the ritual life of all Jeju Islanders along with the god Menggam himself as hunting declined. It may also be a fusion of two originally independent narratives: an indigenous myth about the skull-god, and a narrative imported from the mainland about Saman escaping the ''chasa''. Similarly, the ''Jangja-puri'' bears a close relationship to the Korean folktale of the ( ). In this story, a miserly rich man (''jangja'') abuses and chases away a Buddhist monk asking for
alms Alms (, ) are money, food, or other material goods donated to people living in poverty. Providing alms is often considered an act of Charity (practice), charity. The act of providing alms is called almsgiving. Etymology The word ''alms'' come ...
. When his daughter-in-law secretly visits the monk to give him alms, he tells her to flee the house the next day and to not look back. The daughter-in-law flees but does look back, discovers that the rich man's house has become a pond, and turns into stone. The ''Jangja-puri'' similarly features the miserly Sama-jangja and his good-hearted daughter-in-law. Some versions even involve a Buddhist monk asking for alms and Sama-jangja abusing him. As in the folktale, the daughter-in-law visits the monk, and he tells her to flee because the house will be turned into a pond. The difference is that the daughter-in-law of the ''Jangja-puri'' insists on staying, and that the monk's prophecy never comes to pass. In most versions, she alone accurately interprets Sama-jangja's ensuing dream. She often makes the arrangements for the ''gut'' ritual for the ''chasa'', directly saving her father-in-law's life. In many versions, when the ''chasas attempt to replace Sama-jangja with Uma-jangja fails, it is the daughter-in-law who tells them to try taking the horse instead. In one version, she officiates the ''ssitgim-gut'' ritual for the horse as well. Unlike her equivalent in folklore, who dooms both her family and herself, the daughter-in-law of the myth is the savior of the household. The folktale thus acts as a literary foil highlighting the heroism of the daughter-in-law, who Jeong Je-ho considers a symbol of the shamans officiating the actual ''ssitgim-gut'' ritual and reciting the myth. The
Korean Buddhist Korean Buddhism is distinguished from other forms of Buddhism by its attempt to resolve what its early practitioners saw as inconsistencies within the Mahayana Buddhist traditions that they received from foreign countries. To address this, they ...
tale '' Wangnangbanhon-jeon'', written some time before 1304, tells a similar story but with a strong Buddhist slant. One night, a man named Wang Sagwe is visited by the spirit of his dead wife, who explains that she died because her husband had rebuked a man for practicing ''
nianfo 250px, Chinese Nianfo carving The Nianfo ( zh, t= 念佛, p=niànfó, alternatively in Japanese ; ; or ) is a Buddhist practice central to East Asian Buddhism. The Chinese term ''nianfo'' is a translation of Sanskrit '' '' ("recollection of th ...
'', a Buddhist devotional practice, and that he will die for the same reason the next day. To avoid this, he must be practicing ''nianfo'' himself when the ''chasa'' arrive. The next day, the ''chasa'' find Wang deep in ''nianfo''. They reluctantly take him to the court of Yama, but Yama forgives him because he believes that the reason Wang was practicing ''nianfo'' was because he had repented. Both Wang and his wife are resurrected and live to the age of 147. The ''Wangnangbanhon-jeon'' has no clear source in the Buddhist literary tradition and may be a Buddhist adaptation of the shamanic mythology. On the other hand, the ''Menggam bon-puri'' may have been influenced by the ''Wangnangbanhon-jeon'' with regards to some details not found in the mainland, such as the extension of Saman's life to unnatural lengths. Similar stories of extending one's life by making offerings to the ''chasa'' appear widely in South Korea in the form of folktales or
legend A legend is a genre of folklore that consists of a narrative featuring human actions, believed or perceived to have taken place in human history. Narratives in this genre may demonstrate human values, and possess certain qualities that give the ...
s without any religious significance. The protagonist of the story is often
Dongfang Shuo Dongfang Shuo (, c. 160 BCE – c. 93 BCE) was a Han dynasty scholar-official, '' fangshi'' ("master of esoterica"), author, and court jester to Emperor Wu (r. 141 – 87 BCE). In Chinese mythology, Dongfang is considered a Daoist ''xian'' ...
, an ancient Chinese minister who became a
stock character A stock character, also known as a character archetype, is a type of character in a narrative (e.g. a novel, play, television show, or film) whom audiences recognize across many narratives or as part of a storytelling tradition or convention. Th ...
in East Asian legend. In other versions, a grandfather (in one version the sixteenth-century philosopher Yulgok) saves their grandchild's life in this way. While analogous folktales of divinities extending human lifespans are known in China, they are associated with celestial
Daoist Taoism or Daoism (, ) is a diverse philosophical and religious tradition indigenous to China, emphasizing harmony with the Tao ( zh, p=dào, w=tao4). With a range of meaning in Chinese philosophy, translations of Tao include 'way', 'road', ' ...
gods, not with the ''chasa''. The Korean folktales are thus thought to reflect indigenous shamanic beliefs.


See also

* '' Song of Dorang-seonbi and Cheongjeong-gaksi'', a South Hamgyong shamanic narrative sung in funerals


Notes


References


Citations


Works cited


Korean

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *


English

* * {{Component rituals and shamanic narratives of the Great Gut of Jeju Island Korean shamanism Korean mythology