
The ''Liezi'' () is a
Taoist
Taoism or Daoism (, ) is a diverse philosophical and religious tradition indigenous to China, emphasizing harmony with the Tao ( zh, p=dào, w=tao4). With a range of meaning in Chinese philosophy, translations of Tao include 'way', 'road', ...
text attributed to
Lie Yukou, a c. 5th century BC
Hundred Schools of Thought
The Hundred Schools of Thought () were philosophies and schools that flourished during the late Spring and Autumn period and Warring States period (221 BC). The term was not used to describe these different philosophies until Confucianism, M ...
philosopher. Although there were references to Lie's ''Liezi'' from the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC, a number of Chinese and Western scholars believe that the content of the current text was compiled around the 4th century CE by Zhang Zhan.
Textual history
The first two references to the ''Liezi'' book are from the former
Han dynasty
The Han dynasty was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China (202 BC9 AD, 25–220 AD) established by Liu Bang and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–206 BC ...
. The editor
Liu Xiang notes he eliminated repetitions in ''Liezi'' and rearranged it into eight chapters (''pian'' ). The
Book of Han
The ''Book of Han'' is a history of China finished in 111 CE, covering the Western, or Former Han dynasty from the first emperor in 206 BCE to the fall of Wang Mang in 23 CE. The work was composed by Ban Gu (32–92 CE), ...
bibliography section () says it has eight chapters () and concludes that since the ''
Zhuangzi'' quotes Liezi, he must have lived before
Zhuangzi. There is a three-century historical gap until the next evidence of the ''Liezi'': the
Jin dynasty commentary by Zhang Zhan (fl. ca. 370 CE). Zhang's preface claims his ''Liezi'' copy was transmitted down from his grandfather. All received ''Liezi'' texts derive from Zhang's version, which is divided into eight chapters (''juan'' ).
During the reign of
Emperor Xuanzong of Tang
Emperor Xuanzong of Tang (; 8 September 685 – 3 May 762), personal name Li Longji, was an Emperor of China, emperor of the Tang dynasty of China, reigning from 712 to 756. His reign of 44 years was the longest during the Tang dynasty. Throu ...
, the ''Liezi'' was designated a Daoist classic, completing the trilogy with the more famous ''
Tao Te Ching
The ''Tao Te Ching'' () or ''Laozi'' is a Chinese classic text and foundational work of Taoism traditionally credited to the sage Laozi, though the text's authorship and date of composition and compilation are debated. The oldest excavated por ...
'' and ''Zhuangzi'', it was honorifically entitled the ''Chongxu zhenjing'' (; "True Classic of Simplicity and Vacuity", that is, ''Classic of the Perfect Emptiness''). This "Simplicity and Vacuity" is
Wing-tsit Chan's translation; ''chongxu'' (literally "soar/young/simple empty/skies/modest") usually means "soar aloft, rise high; carefree, unburdened with ambition". During the later reign of
Emperor Zhenzong of Song, the ''Liezi'' was further honored as the ''Chongxu zhide zhenjing'' (; “True Classic of Simplicity and Vacuity and Perfect Virtue”).
Contents
The eight ''Liezi'' chapters are shown below (with translations of titles adapted from ).
Most ''Liezi'' chapters are named after famous figures in
Chinese mythology
Chinese mythology () is mythology that has been passed down in oral form or recorded in literature throughout the area now known as Greater China. Chinese mythology encompasses a diverse array of myths derived from regional and cultural tradit ...
and history. Either sage rulers like the
Yellow Emperor
The Yellow Emperor, also known as the Yellow Thearch, or Huangdi ( zh, t=黃帝, s=黄帝, first=t) in Chinese, is a mythical Chinese sovereign and culture hero included among the legendary Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors. He is revered as ...
(supposedly r. 2698?–2599? BCE),
King Tang of Shang (r. 1617?–1588? BCE), and
King Mu of Zhou
King Mu of Zhou (), personal name Ji Man, was the fifth Chinese sovereign, king of the Zhou dynasty of China. The dates of his reign are 976–922 BC or 956–918 BC.
Life
King Mu came to the throne after his father King Zhao of Zhou, King Zha ...
(r. 1023?–983? BCE); or philosophers like
Confucius
Confucius (; pinyin: ; ; ), born Kong Qiu (), was a Chinese philosopher of the Spring and Autumn period who is traditionally considered the paragon of Chinese sages. Much of the shared cultural heritage of the Sinosphere originates in the phil ...
(551–479 BCE) and
Yang Zhu
Yang Zhu (; ; 440–c.360 BC), also known as Yangzi (Master Yang), was a Chinese philosopher during the Warring States period. An early ethical egoist alternative to Mohist and Confucian thought, Yang Zhu's surviving ideas appear primarily in t ...
(fl. ca. 350 BCE).
The ''Liezi'' is generally considered to be the most practical of the major Taoist works, compared to the poetic narrative of Laozi and the philosophical writings of Zhuangzi. Although the ''Liezi'' has not been extensively published in the West, some passages are well known. For example, Gengsangzi () gives this description of Taoist pure experience:
My body is in accord with my mind, my mind with my energies, my energies with my spirit, my spirit with Nothing. Whenever the minutest existing thing or the faintest sound affects me, whether it is far away beyond the eight borderlands, or close at hand between my eyebrows and eyelashes, I am bound to know it. However, I do not know whether I perceived it with the seven holes in my head and my four limbs, or knew it through my heart and belly and internal organs. It is simply self-knowledge.
Compare the ''Zhuangzi'' saying, "The Perfect Man uses his mind like a mirror—going after nothing, welcoming nothing, responding but not storing. Therefore he can win out over things and not hurt himself."
Authenticity
''Liezi'' scholars have long recognized that it shares many passages with other pre-Han texts like the ''Zhuangzi'', ''Daodejing'', and ''
Lüshi Chunqiu
The ''Lüshi Chunqiu'' (), also known in English as ''Master Lü's Spring and Autumn Annals'', is an encyclopedic Chinese classic text compiled around 239BC under the patronage of late pre-imperial Qin Chancellor Lü Buwei. In the evaluati ...
''. Barrett says opinion is "divided as to whether it is an ancient work with later interpolations or a forgery confected from ancient sources." On the one hand, the ''Liezi'' could contain a core of c. 400 BCE authentic writings of Lie Yukou; on the other hand, it could be a c. 400 CE compilation forged by Zhang Zhan.
The ''Liezi'' is most similar with the ''
Zhuangzi''. They share many characters and stories; Graham lists sixteen complete episodes plus sections from others. The ''Zhuangzi'' also mentions Liezi in four chapters and Lie Yukou in three, for example, the famous passage about Liezi's ability to ride the wind and go flying around in chapter 1.
The final two chapters have heterogeneous contents that differ from the Daoism elsewhere in the book. Chapter 7 records the Yangism philosophy of "Yang Zhu" (Yangzi), infamous for the criticism of
Mencius
Mencius (孟子, ''Mèngzǐ'', ; ) was a Chinese Confucian philosopher, often described as the Second Sage () to reflect his traditional esteem relative to Confucius himself. He was part of Confucius's fourth generation of disciples, inheriting ...
that he, "believed in 'every man for himself.' If he could have helped the whole world by plucking out a single hair, he would not have done it." Zhang Zhan speculates that this chapter, focusing on indulgence in physical and temporary pleasures, was from Lie Yukou's earlier years in Yangism, before he became a Daoist. The well-known scholar of Chinese philosophy,
Wing-Tsit Chan calls the "Yang Zhu" chapter "negative Daoism" in contrast with the Daoism of Laozi, Zhuangzi, and Huainanzi that were "all positive in that each represents something new." Chapter 8, "Explaining Conjunctions," is primarily taken from other early sources, not only Daoist but
Confucian
Confucianism, also known as Ruism or Ru classicism, is a system of thought and behavior originating in ancient China, and is variously described as a tradition, philosophy, religion, theory of government, or way of life. Founded by Confucius ...
and
Mohist
Mohism or Moism (, ) was an ancient Chinese philosophy of ethics and logic, rational thought, and scientific technology developed by the scholars who studied under the ancient Chinese philosopher Mozi (), embodied in an eponymous book: the '' ...
texts, two philosophies that opposed the philosophical Daoism this book expounds.
A. C. Graham, Professor Emeritus of the
School of Oriental and African Studies
The School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS University of London; ) is a public research university in London, England, and a member institution of the federal University of London. Founded in 1916, SOAS is located in the Bloomsbury area ...
, illuminated the textual provenance. After his translation of ''Liezi'' in 1960, which Barrett calls undoubtedly "the best translation into a Western language to date", Graham linguistically analyzed internal evidence and textual parallels. He discovered many cases where the ''Liezi'' is clearly secondary to other texts, but none where it is the primary source for a passage. The Preface to the revised ''Liezi'' translation explains his significant change in attitude.
Although in 1960 most scholars in China already recognized the late date of '' iezi', most Westerners were still disinclined to question its antiquity. My own textual studies, not yet completed when this translation first appeared, supported the Chinese dating, which by now prevails also in the West. … One result of the textual investigation came as a surprise to me. The present book describes the hedonist 'Yang hu chapter as 'so unlike the rest of 'Liezi''that it must be from another hand … The thought is certainly very different, and it does show the signs of editing and interpolation by the Taoist author … But although close scrutiny generally reveals marked differences in style between the body of the book and passages borrowed from earlier sources, I could find none to distinguish the hedonist chapter from the rest.
Owing to occasional ''Liezi'' textual misunderstandings in Zhang Zhan's commentary, Graham concludes that the "guiding hand" probably belonged to Zhang's father or grandfather, which would mean c. 300 CE.
Suggestions of Buddhist influences in ''Liezi'' chapters 3 and 6 are potentially corroborating evidence for a late date of composition; see
Buddhism in China
Buddhism in China refers to Buddhism that has been developed and practiced in China, based on the geographical location and administrative region instead of a particular Buddhist branch. Buddhism is the largest officially recognized religion i ...
. "King Mu of Zhou" discusses sense perceptions as illusions; "Endeavor and Destiny" takes a fatalistic (if not karmic) view of destiny, which goes against the traditional Daoist concept of
''Wuwei''.
Influence
''Liezi'' is known as one of the three most important texts in Taoism, together with the ''
Tao Te Ching
The ''Tao Te Ching'' () or ''Laozi'' is a Chinese classic text and foundational work of Taoism traditionally credited to the sage Laozi, though the text's authorship and date of composition and compilation are debated. The oldest excavated por ...
'' and ''
Zhuangzi''. Outside of Taoism, the
biji genre story ''
Yi Jian Zhi'' by
Hong Mai borrowed the character of Yi Jian, a contemporary of the ancient mythical emperor Yu, from ''Liezi''.
Translations
There are fewer English translations of the ''Liezi'' than other Taoist texts. The first were partial versions;
Lionel Giles (1912) translated chapters 1–6 and 8, while Anton Forke (1912) covered chapter 7 ("Yang Zhu"). As mentioned above, A. C. Graham (1960, 1990) wrote a definitive scholarly translation. A recent ''Liezi'' rendition is a creative translation by Eva Wong (2001). In 2005, the Library of Chinese Classics published a translation by Liang Xiaopeng. In 2011, Thomas Cleary self-published a translation titled ''The Book of Master Lie'', available in Amazon Kindle format.
See also
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Daodejing
The ''Tao Te Ching'' () or ''Laozi'' is a Chinese classic text and foundational work of Taoism traditionally credited to the sage Laozi, though the text's authorship and date of composition and compilation are debated. The oldest excavated po ...
*
Zhuangzi
*
Wenzi
*
Four Books
The Four Books and Five Classics are authoritative and important books associated with Confucianism, written before 300 BC. They are traditionally believed to have been either written, edited or commented by Confucius or one of his disciples. S ...
Notes
References
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External links
''Liezi'' Taoist Culture & Information Centre
Overview of World Religions
Ancient Landmarks
* Giles' translation availabl
on archive.org Forke's translation, Internet Sacred Text Archive
Liezi Chinese Text Project (in Chinese)
The ''Liezi''from
Project Gutenberg
Project Gutenberg (PG) is a volunteer effort to digitize and archive cultural works, as well as to "encourage the creation and distribution of eBooks."
It was founded in 1971 by American writer Michael S. Hart and is the oldest digital li ...
(in Chinese)
The ''Liezi Chapter 7, Yang Chu''from Dalriada Books (in English)
Chinese text with English vocabulary
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