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The Li Lisan line was the 1930 military campaign by the
Chinese Communist Party The Communist Party of China (CPC), also translated into English as Chinese Communist Party (CCP), is the founding and One-party state, sole ruling party of the People's Republic of China (PRC). Founded in 1921, the CCP emerged victorious in the ...
(CCP, or the Communists) to achieve strategic victory in the
Chinese Civil War The Chinese Civil War was fought between the Kuomintang-led Nationalist government, government of the Republic of China (1912–1949), Republic of China and the forces of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). Armed conflict continued intermitt ...
against the
Kuomintang The Kuomintang (KMT) is a major political party in the Republic of China (Taiwan). It was the one party state, sole ruling party of the country Republic of China (1912-1949), during its rule from 1927 to 1949 in Mainland China until Retreat ...
-led (KMT)
Republic of China Taiwan, officially the Republic of China (ROC), is a country in East Asia. The main geography of Taiwan, island of Taiwan, also known as ''Formosa'', lies between the East China Sea, East and South China Seas in the northwestern Pacific Ocea ...
(ROC) by seizing urban areas. It was developed by Li Lisan, the party leader. The offensive quickly failed. The
Chinese Red Army The Chinese Red Army, formally the Chinese Workers' and Peasants' Red Army( zh, labels=no, t=中國工農紅軍) or just the Red Army( zh, labels=no, t=紅軍), was the military wing of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) from 1928 to 1937. I ...
was stopped as it advanced northward to
Wuhan Wuhan; is the capital of Hubei, China. With a population of over eleven million, it is the most populous city in Hubei and the List of cities in China by population, eighth-most-populous city in China. It is also one of the nine National cent ...
and retreated back to its southern rural base areas. Support among urban workers - which the party had overestimated - did not materialize. The Red Army stopped attacking to prepare for the ROC's first encirclement campaign against the Jiangxi Soviet. The failure of the Li Lisan line shifted the CCP's strategy from urban- to rural-based revolution. The change, accompanied by leadership changes, allowed
Mao Zedong Mao Zedong pronounced ; traditionally Romanization of Chinese, romanised as Mao Tse-tung. (26December 18939September 1976) was a Chinese politician, revolutionary, and political theorist who founded the People's Republic of China (PRC) in ...
- an advocate of rural-based revolution - to emerge with greater influence within the party.


Background


Communist strategy for revolution

In 1927, the
First United Front The First United Front , also known as the KMT–CCP Alliance, of the Kuomintang (KMT) and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), was formed in 1924 as an alliance to end Warlord Era, warlordism in China. Together they formed the National Revolution ...
collapsed and fighting broke out between the KMT and the CCP. The Communists initially used defectors and Communist-controlled units from the KMT-dominated
National Revolutionary Army The National Revolutionary Army (NRA; zh, labels=no, t=國民革命軍) served as the military arm of the Kuomintang, Chinese Nationalist Party (Kuomintang, or KMT) from 1924 until 1947. From 1928, it functioned as the regular army, de facto ...
and worker militias for its armed forces but these were insufficient. The Communists suffered heavy losses from KMT purges and suppressed uprisings, particularly in urban areas where the Communists were ideologically based. By August, the CCP was reorganizing as a clandestine movement to survive. The Communists found greater success in rural areas. Urban workers, who were more interested in the economic matters, were less receptive to Communist calls for political change. By 1928, 75% of party members were peasants. Also, through the late-1920s the Chinese Red Army continued to fight the ROC away from the cities and, in some places, established Communist-controlled enclaves. The Communists received strategic advice from the
Soviet Union The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR), commonly known as the Soviet Union, was a List of former transcontinental countries#Since 1700, transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 until Dissolution of the Soviet ...
(USSR) through the
Communist International The Communist International, abbreviated as Comintern and also known as the Third International, was a political international which existed from 1919 to 1943 and advocated world communism. Emerging from the collapse of the Second Internationa ...
(Comintern). In early-1929, the Comintern issued guidance to refocus the movement on the
proletariat The proletariat (; ) is the social class of wage-earners, those members of a society whose possession of significant economic value is their labour power (their capacity to work). A member of such a class is a proletarian or a . Marxist ph ...
and urban insurrection. During the 1929 Sino-Soviet conflict over the
Chinese Eastern Railway The Chinese Eastern Railway or CER (, , or , ''Kitaysko-Vostochnaya Zheleznaya Doroga'' or ''KVZhD''), is the historical name for a railway system in Northeast China (also known as Manchuria). The Russian Empire constructed the line from 1897 ...
, the USSR sought to complement Soviet military action against the ROC with Communist attacks. In October, the Comintern instructed the Communists to intensify their
guerrilla warfare Guerrilla warfare is a form of unconventional warfare in which small groups of irregular military, such as rebels, partisans, paramilitary personnel or armed civilians, which may include recruited children, use ambushes, sabotage, terrori ...
by vaguely implying that there was a "rising revolutionary tide" and that conditions were becoming favorable for revolution. This was markedly different from previous cautious Comintern assessments. The instructions reached the party's central leadership in
Shanghai Shanghai, Shanghainese: , Standard Chinese pronunciation: is a direct-administered municipality and the most populous urban area in China. The city is located on the Chinese shoreline on the southern estuary of the Yangtze River, with the ...
in early December as the conflict ended. Li Lisan had practically been party leader since 1928 and supported urban insurrection. In early 1929, he had been pessimistic about the prospects of a national revolution due to weak support for the Communists in the cities. The Comintern assessment from October revived his confidence. The party center believed that workers' revolutionary fervor could be translated into urban insurrections by attacking cities with the rural armies; capturing major cities would then catalyze a national revolution.
Mao Zedong Mao Zedong pronounced ; traditionally Romanization of Chinese, romanised as Mao Tse-tung. (26December 18939September 1976) was a Chinese politician, revolutionary, and political theorist who founded the People's Republic of China (PRC) in ...
and
Zhu De Zhu De; (1 December 1886 – 6 July 1976) was a Chinese general, military strategist, politician and revolutionary in the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). Zhu was born into poverty in 1886 in Sichuan. He was adopted by a wealthy uncle at ...
had misgivings about the new strategy, and participated either cautiously or reluctant. Mao had also assessed that revolutionary prospects were increasing based on his work in rural base areas and acknowledged - at least in word - of the need for "proletarian leadership" and capturing cities. Mao differed from Li was using protracted encirclements of cities as preludes to their capture, instead of immediate direct assaults; encirclement complemented Mao's strategy of first achieving rural control. A party conference in February 1930 supported the urban insurrection over Mao's encirclement strategy.


Preparations

On 8 December 1929, the CCP Central Committee ordered the rural armies to expand by absorbing irregular units and
concentrate A concentrate is a form of Chemical substance, substance that has had the majority of its diluting agent or diluent (in the case of a liquid: the solvent) removed, such that the substance becomes the majority of the composition. Typically, this w ...
. Specific planning began in early-1930. The first major target would be
Wuhan Wuhan; is the capital of Hubei, China. With a population of over eleven million, it is the most populous city in Hubei and the List of cities in China by population, eighth-most-populous city in China. It is also one of the nine National cent ...
, preceded by attacks on
Changsha Changsha is the capital of Hunan, China. It is the 15th most populous city in China with a population of 10,513,100, the Central China#Cities with urban area over one million in population, third-most populous city in Central China, and the ...
,
Nanchang Nanchang is the capital of Jiangxi, China. Located in the north-central part of the province and in the hinterland of Poyang Lake Plain, it is bounded on the west by the Jiuling Mountains, and on the east by Poyang Lake. Because of its strate ...
and
Jiujiang Jiujiang, formerly transliterated Kiukiang and Kew-Keang, is a prefecture-level city located on the southern shores of the Yangtze River in northwest Jiangxi Province in the People's Republic of China. It is the second-largest prefecture-level ...
The Communists believed the capture of Wuhan would generate momentum to capture
Shanghai Shanghai, Shanghainese: , Standard Chinese pronunciation: is a direct-administered municipality and the most populous urban area in China. The city is located on the Chinese shoreline on the southern estuary of the Yangtze River, with the ...
, and from there "set off a worldwide chain of revolutionary events." There was friction between Li in Shanghai, and Mao and Zhu in
Jiangxi ; Gan: ) , translit_lang1_type2 = , translit_lang1_info2 = , translit_lang1_type3 = , translit_lang1_info3 = , image_map = Jiangxi in China (+all claims hatched).svg , mapsize = 275px , map_caption = Location ...
. The
Jiangxi Soviet The Jiangxi Soviet, sometimes referred to as the Jiangxi-Fujian Soviet, was a soviet area that existed between 1931 and 1934, governed by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). It was the largest component of the Chinese Soviet Republic and hom ...
received the Central Committee's orders arrived in late-January. Mao and Zhu's slow and incomplete compliance drew criticism from the party center; Mao cancelled attacks on
Ji'an Ji'an ( zh, c=吉安 , p=Jí'ān) is a prefecture-level city situated in the central region of Jiangxi province of the People's Republic of China and bordering Hunan province to the west. It has an area of and as of the 2020 census, had a popu ...
and
Ganzhou Ganzhou (), alternately romanized as Kanchow, is a prefecture-level city in the south of Jiangxi province, China, bordering Fujian to the east, Guangdong to the south, and Hunan to the west. Its administrative seat is at Zhanggong District. His ...
in March and then spent three months consolidating the rural base area. Mao and Zhu refused Li's orders to meet in Shanghai. Mao and Zhu's summons by Li was part of a larger effort to concentrate control of the army in the party center and away from local commanders. In February 1930, the Red Army was reorganized to allow a clear chain-of-command from the party center through the General Front Committee. The General Front Committee was created by the Central Committee in April 1930 to exercise in theater control. In practice, the center's influence over the army remained limited as Mao was made chair of the front committee. Emergency provincial-level Action Committees were created which reported to the Li. The armies were subordinated to the army's new Central Revolutionary Military Commission which also answered to Li. Mao and Zhu were offered positions on the Military Commission when they were ordered to attack in June. Before the offensive the Red Army took an oath of allegiance to the party, the "Li Lisan oath". Communist preparations alarmed the USSR. On 23 July, a Comintern letter drafted in May arrived in Shanghai stating that the revolutionary movement was still too weak to overthrow the ROC. Another letter received on 28 July repeated Soviet opposition to urban uprising. The offensive proceeded anyway.


Campaign


Changsha and Nanchang

The offensive began on 25 July with
Peng Dehuai Peng Dehuai (October 24, 1898November 29, 1974; also spelled as Peng Teh-Huai) was a Chinese general and politician who was the Minister of National Defense (China), Minister of National Defense from 1954 to 1959. Peng was born into a poor ...
's Third Red Corps, formerly the Fifth Red Army, attacking Changsha. The corps defeated a KMT force, led by He Jian, four times its size and captured the city on 27 or 29 July. No worker revolt ensued. Foreign
gunboat A gunboat is a naval watercraft designed for the express purpose of carrying one or more guns to bombard coastal targets, as opposed to those military craft designed for naval warfare, or for ferrying troops or supplies. History Pre-steam ...
s sailed up the
Xiang River The Xiang River is the chief river of the Lake Dongting drainage system of the middle Yangtze, the largest river in Hunan Province, China. It is the second-largest tributary (after the Min River) in terms of surface runoff, the fifth-largest ...
and conducted bombardments to protect foreign concessions. The Communists abandoned the city on 3 August with captured supplies. The KMT's
National Revolutionary Army The National Revolutionary Army (NRA; zh, labels=no, t=國民革命軍) served as the military arm of the Kuomintang, Chinese Nationalist Party (Kuomintang, or KMT) from 1924 until 1947. From 1928, it functioned as the regular army, de facto ...
(NRA) reoccupied the city and began purging Communist sympathizers. Mao and Zhu's First Red Corps, formerly the Fourth Red Army, was ordered to attack Nanchang on 22 July. It moved slowly. The corps left Tingzhou on 27 or 28 July. It travelled less than 100 miles westward in the next ten days, and another 70 miles northwards over the next two weeks to Zhangzhu, where there was fighting. Nanchang was judged to be too heavily defended. The Communists made a symbolic attack on the city on 1 August and withdrew. The corps combined at
Liuyang Liuyang () is a county-level city, the List of County-level divisions of Hunan by population, most populous and the easternmost county-level division of Hunan, Hunan Province, China; it is under the administration of the prefecture-level city ...
,
Hunan Hunan is an inland Provinces of China, province in Central China. Located in the middle reaches of the Yangtze watershed, it borders the Administrative divisions of China, province-level divisions of Hubei to the north, Jiangxi to the east, Gu ...
, into the First Front Army with Mao and Zhu in command. The First Front Army decided to attack Changsha again; Mao and Zhu were against this. NRA reinforcements were arriving and were supported by foreign gunboats. The second attack started on 1 September and was stopped by strong defenses a few miles south-east of Changsha; the Communists retreated on 12 or 13 September after heavy fighting and the approach of further NRA reinforcements.


Ji'an

The First Front Army withdrew to Jiangxi. A minority demanded another attack on the better defended Nanchang. They were placated by attacking
Ji'an Ji'an ( zh, c=吉安 , p=Jí'ān) is a prefecture-level city situated in the central region of Jiangxi province of the People's Republic of China and bordering Hunan province to the west. It has an area of and as of the 2020 census, had a popu ...
, supposedly as a preclude to Nanchang; capturing the city would consolidate the southwestern territory of the Jiangxi Soviet. The army spend three weeks resting and rearming. The First Front Army, local Communist militia, and Communist Youth advanced on Ji'an from three directions on the morning of 4 October and captured it by nightfall; the defenders "slipped away without a fight".


Aftermath


Cancelling the offensive

The offensive ended with the Communists failing to achieve any its objectives and ended as strategic circumstances shifted. Even as the offensive began, Li's ability to support it began to erode. By late-July, the Soviets had setup a radio transmitter in Shanghai, eliminating much of the communications delay and Li's freedom of action. By late-August, Li could no longer ignore Soviet opposition to the urban uprising plan and he cancelled the attacks on Wuhan and Shanghai. By that time, Li's power of unilateral action was further reduced by the return of
Zhou Enlai Zhou Enlai ( zh, s=周恩来, p=Zhōu Ēnlái, w=Chou1 Ên1-lai2; 5 March 1898 – 8 January 1976) was a Chinese statesman, diplomat, and revolutionary who served as the first Premier of the People's Republic of China from September 1954 unti ...
and Qu Qiubai to the party center. In mid-November, the party center received a Comintern letter accusing Li of ideological deviation and executing the offensive against Comintern directives. Li was practically removed from the party leadership in December when he was recalled to
Moscow Moscow is the Capital city, capital and List of cities and towns in Russia by population, largest city of Russia, standing on the Moskva (river), Moskva River in Central Russia. It has a population estimated at over 13 million residents with ...
. The offensive also halted to prepare for the NRA's first encirclement campaign against the Jiangxi Soviet. The Communists learned of the NRA offensive from documents captured in Ji'an.


Communist politics

Li's removal was followed by a reorganization of the party leadership by
Pavel Mif Mikhail Alexandrovich Fortus (3 August 1901 – 10 September 1939), known under the pseudonym Pavel Mif, was an academic and specialist in Asian political policy to the government of the Soviet Union under Josef Stalin. He was born in the Khe ...
,
Stalin Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin (born Dzhugashvili; 5 March 1953) was a Soviet politician and revolutionary who led the Soviet Union from 1924 until Death and state funeral of Joseph Stalin, his death in 1953. He held power as General Secret ...
's China specialist. Over the next few years, the 28 Bolsheviks became the dominant group in the party leadership. Zhou successfully distanced himself from Li and helped alter party strategy to match Mao's, enhancing the latter's influence. In Jiangxi, Mao's position was buttressed by support from the center, who saw him as a balancing force against Li's old and now distrusted associates. In November 1930, Mao used accusations of ties to the KMT's Anti-Bolshevik Corps (AB Corps) to
purge In history, religion and political science, a purge is a position removal or execution of people who are considered undesirable by those in power from a government, another, their team leaders, or society as a whole. A group undertaking such an ...
the Jiangxi Action Committee and the First Front Army to secure leadership over the Red Army and consolidate power. Mao's subsequent AB Corps purges, culminating in the Futian incident in July 1931, were overlooked by the party center which was preoccupied with the post-Li leadership changes and the First Extermination Campaign.


Evolution of the Red Army

The Red Army emerged from the campaign as a more tightly integrated force. Before the campaign, the army had included many small, scattered and operationally independent units; the need to concentrate to assault cities brought many of these units under a single headquarters. The reorganization needed to create the First Front Army included standardizing unit baselines for training, equipment and personnel; the First Front Army was another step in giving the Red Army a professional military structure. The campaign helped shift the Red Army's tactics from
guerrilla warfare Guerrilla warfare is a form of unconventional warfare in which small groups of irregular military, such as rebels, partisans, paramilitary personnel or armed civilians, which may include recruited children, use ambushes, sabotage, terrori ...
to Mobile Warfare.


References


Sources

* * * {{Chinese Civil War Conflicts in 1930 Campaigns of the Chinese Civil War (1927–1937) 1930 in China National Revolutionary Army Military history of Jiangxi Chinese Communist Revolution