''Lecanopteris sinuosa'' is a fern that belongs to the

fern The ferns (Polypodiopsida or Polypodiophyta) are a group of vascular plants (plants with xylem and phloem) that reproduce via spores and have neither seeds nor flowers. They differ from mosses by being vascular, i.e., having specialized tissue ...

genus ''

Lecanopteris ''Lecanopteris'' is a genus of ferns in the family Polypodiaceae, subfamily Microsoroideae, according to the Pteridophyte Phylogeny Group classification of 2016 (PPG I). They have swollen hollow rhizomes that provide homes for symbiotic ants ...

''. This epiphytic plant has a mutualistic relationship with stingless shelter ants, which makes it a

myrmecophyte Myrmecophytes (; literally "ant-plant") are plants that live in a mutualistic association with a colony of ants. There are over 100 different genera of myrmecophytes. These plants possess structural adaptations in the form of domatia where ants ...

. The ant species associated with ''L. sinuosa'' belong within the genera ''

Crematogaster ''Crematogaster'' is an ecologically diverse genus of ants found worldwide, which are characterised by a distinctive heart-shaped gaster (insect anatomy), gaster (abdomen), which gives them one of their common names, the Saint Valentine ant. Mem ...

'', ''

Technomyrmex ''Technomyrmex'' is a genus of ants in the subfamily Dolichoderinae. With 98 species, it is one of the largest and most diverse ant genera in the Dolichoderinae. The genus distributed throughout the tropical and subtropical zones with most specie ...

'' or ''

Iridomyrmex ''Iridomyrmex'' is a genus of ants called rainbow ants (referring to their blue-green iridescent sheen) first described by Austrian entomologist Gustav Mayr in 1862. He placed the genus in the subfamily Dolichoderinae of the family Formicida ...

''. The ants rear their

larvae A larva (; : larvae ) is a distinct juvenile form many animals undergo before metamorphosis into their next life stage. Animals with indirect developmental biology, development such as insects, some arachnids, amphibians, or cnidarians typical ...

within the rhizome for protection, and in turn, ''L. sinuosa'' receives nutritional benefit from feces and other debris left behind by the plants. It is also suggested that ''L. sinuosa'' benefits from increased protection from

herbivory A herbivore is an animal anatomically and physiologically evolved to feed on plants, especially upon vascular tissues such as foliage, fruits or seeds, as the main component of its diet. These more broadly also encompass animals that eat n ...

and increased

spore In biology, a spore is a unit of sexual reproduction, sexual (in fungi) or asexual reproduction that may be adapted for biological dispersal, dispersal and for survival, often for extended periods of time, in unfavourable conditions. Spores fo ...

dispersal. ''Lecanopteris sinuosa'' belongs in the subgenus ''Myrmecopteris'' (comprising four species total), which is characterized by ferns that have peltate scales and sori that are deeply immersed on the pinnae.

Rhizome morphology

The unique

rhizome In botany and dendrology, a rhizome ( ) is a modified subterranean plant stem that sends out roots and Shoot (botany), shoots from its Node (botany), nodes. Rhizomes are also called creeping rootstalks or just rootstalks. Rhizomes develop from ...

structure of ''L. sinuosa'' allows it to maintain a mutualistic relationship with ants. As the plant is young, the rhizome is solid (without cavities), but as it matures, the thin walled

parenchyma upright=1.6, Lung parenchyma showing damage due to large subpleural bullae. Parenchyma () is the bulk of functional substance in an animal organ such as the brain or lungs, or a structure such as a tumour. In zoology, it is the tissue that ...

cells begin to hollow. These cells become infused with phlopaphene (a deep brown strengthening substance), which causes the rhizome to appear rock-like.

Phylogeny

The

monophyletic In biological cladistics for the classification of organisms, monophyly is the condition of a taxonomic grouping being a clade – that is, a grouping of organisms which meets these criteria: # the grouping contains its own most recent co ...

genus, ''Lecanopteris'', is in the fern family, Polypodicaeae. It comprises two sub-genera: ''Lecanopteris'' and ''Myrmecopteris''. The genus comprises 13 species total, all of which have rhizomes associated with ants. Subgenus ''Lecanopteris'' is monophyletic, and ''Myrmecopteris'' is

paraphyletic Paraphyly is a taxonomic term describing a grouping that consists of the grouping's last common ancestor and some but not all of its descendant lineages. The grouping is said to be paraphyletic ''with respect to'' the excluded subgroups. In co ...

and contains ''L. sinuosa''. Within the sub-genus, ''L. sinuosa'' is sister to '' Lecanopteris crustacea'', '' Lecanopteris sarcopus'' (syn. ''L. lomarioides''), and sub-genus ''Lecanopteris''. This phylogenic relationship was determined based on a tree using parsimony and

maximum likelihood In statistics, maximum likelihood estimation (MLE) is a method of estimating the parameters of an assumed probability distribution, given some observed data. This is achieved by maximizing a likelihood function so that, under the assumed stati ...

combined using genetic sequences from the rbcL gene and the trnL-F non-coding region.

Distribution

''Lecanopteris sinuosa'' has been identified in Malesia, Sulawesi (Celebes), Philippines, New Guinea, Moluccas, Indochina, and Vanuatu. It can survive in almost any habitat found in the listed locations except lowland rainforests.

References

{{Taxonbar, from=Q17197274 sinuosa