Language Of Flowers
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Floriography (language of flowers) is a means of cryptological communication through the use or arrangement of flowers. Meaning has been attributed to flowers for thousands of years, and some form of floriography has been practiced in traditional cultures throughout Europe, Asia, and Africa.


History

According to Jayne Alcock, grounds and gardens supervisor at the Walled Gardens of Cannington, the renewed
Victorian era In the history of the United Kingdom and the British Empire, the Victorian era was the reign of Queen Victoria, from 20 June 1837 until her death on 22 January 1901. Slightly different definitions are sometimes used. The era followed the ...
interest in the language of flowers finds its roots in Ottoman Turkey, specifically the court in
Constantinople Constantinople (#Names of Constantinople, see other names) was a historical city located on the Bosporus that served as the capital of the Roman Empire, Roman, Byzantine Empire, Byzantine, Latin Empire, Latin, and Ottoman Empire, Ottoman empire ...
and an obsession it held with tulips during the first half of the 18th century. In the 14th century, the Turkish tradition sélam had an influence on the language of flowers. Sélam was a game of gifting flowers and objects to send a message, the interpretation of the message revealed through rhymes. During the Victorian age, the use of flowers as a means of covert communication coincided with a growing interest in
botany Botany, also called plant science, is the branch of natural science and biology studying plants, especially Plant anatomy, their anatomy, Plant taxonomy, taxonomy, and Plant ecology, ecology. A botanist or plant scientist is a scientist who s ...
. The floriography craze was introduced to Europe by the Englishwoman
Mary Wortley Montagu Lady Mary Wortley Montagu (née Pierrepont; 15 May 168921 August 1762) was an English people, English Aristocracy (class), aristocrat, medical pioneer, writer, and poet. Born in 1689, Lady Mary spent her early life in England. In 1712, Lady Ma ...
(1689–1762), who brought it to England in 1717, and Aubry de La Mottraye (1674–1743), who introduced it to the Swedish court in 1727. Joseph Hammer-Purgstall's (1809) appears to be the first published list associating flowers with symbolic definitions, while the first dictionary of floriography appears in 1819 when Louise Cortambert, writing under pen name Madame Charlotte de la Tour, wrote . Robert Tyas was a popular British flower writer, publisher, and clergyman, who lived from 1811 to 1879; his book, ''The Sentiment of Flowers; or, Language of Flora'', first published in 1836 and reprinted by various publishing houses at least through 1880, was billed as an English version of Charlotte de la Tour's book. Interest in floriography soared in Victorian England, North America and France during the 19th century. Gifts of blooms, plants, and specific floral arrangements were used to send a coded message to the recipient, allowing the sender to express feelings of romance and courtship which could not be spoken aloud in Victorian society. Armed with floral dictionaries, Victorians often exchanged small "talking bouquets" or "word poesy,” called nosegays or tussie-mussies, which could be worn or carried as a fashion accessory. The word "nosegay" was used because the flowers would smell nice and the word "gay" meant ornament. These accessories were originally worn to mask the scent of the streets and body odor, and were often composed of fragrant herbs and flowers such as lavender, lemon balm, and roses. During the 16th century, the purpose of the tussie-mussies changed. They were commonly gifted to a love interest. The meaning of flowers was determined by their cultural meanings along with legends and myths. In England and America, courses such as botany, painting flowers, and floral arranging became popular in education, especially for young women. Tussie-mussies are still used in modern-day as corsages and boutonnieres. In the United States, the first appearance of the language of flowers in print was in the writings of
Constantine Samuel Rafinesque Constantine Samuel Rafinesque-Schmaltz (; 22 October 178318 September 1840) was a French early 19th-century polymath born near Constantinople in the Ottoman Empire and self-educated in France. He traveled as a young man in the United States, ult ...
, a French-American naturalist, who wrote on-going features under the title "The School of Flora", from 1827 through 1828, in the weekly ''
Saturday Evening Post ''The Saturday Evening Post'' is an American magazine published six times a year. It was published weekly from 1897 until 1963, and then every other week until 1969. From the 1920s to the 1960s, it was one of the most widely circulated and influ ...
'' and monthly ''Casket; or Flowers of Literature, Wit, and Sentiment''. These pieces contained the botanic, English, and French names of the plant, a description of the plant, an explanation of its Latin names, and the flower's emblematic meaning; therefore readers could select flowers appropriately to send a message. However, the first books on floriography were Elizabeth Wirt's ''Flora's Dictionary'' and Dorothea Dix's ''The Garland of Flora'', both of which were published in 1829, though Wirt's book had been issued in an unauthorized edition in 1828. During its peak in the United States, the language of flowers attracted the attention of popular writers and editors. Sarah Josepha Hale, longtime editor of the '' Ladies' Magazine'' and co-editor of '' Godey's Lady's Book'', edited Flora's Interpreter in 1832; it continued in print through the 1860s. Catharine H. Waterman Esling wrote a long poem titled "The Language of Flowers", which first appeared in 1839 in her own language of flowers book, ''Flora's Lexicon''; it continued in print through the 1860s. Lucy Hooper, an editor, novelist, poet, and playwright, included several of her flower poems in ''The Lady's Book of Flowers and Poetry'', first published in 1841. Frances Sargent Osgood, a poet and friend of
Edgar Allan Poe Edgar Allan Poe (; January 19, 1809 – October 7, 1849) was an American writer, poet, editor, and literary critic who is best known for his poetry and short stories, particularly his tales involving mystery and the macabre. He is widely re ...
, first published ''The Poetry of Flowers and Flowers of Poetry'' in 1841, and it continued in print through the 1860s.


Meanings

The significance assigned to specific flowers in Western culture varied – nearly every flower had multiple associations, listed in the hundreds of floral dictionaries – but a consensus of meaning for common blooms has emerged. Often, definitions derive from the appearance or behavior of the plant itself. For example, the mimosa, or sensitive plant, represents chastity. This is because the leaves of the mimosa close at night, or when touched. Likewise, the deep red
rose A rose is either a woody perennial plant, perennial flowering plant of the genus ''Rosa'' (), in the family Rosaceae (), or the flower it bears. There are over three hundred Rose species, species and Garden roses, tens of thousands of cultivar ...
and its thorns have been used to symbolize both the blood of Christ and the intensity of
romantic love Romance or romantic love is a feeling of love for, or a Interpersonal attraction, strong attraction towards another person, and the Courtship, courtship behaviors undertaken by an individual to express those overall feelings and resultant ...
, while the rose's five petals are thought to illustrate the five crucifixion wounds of Christ. Pink roses imply a lesser affection, white roses suggest virtue and chastity, and yellow roses stand for friendship or devotion. The black rose (in nature, a very dark shade of red, purple, or maroon, or may be dyed) may be associated with
death Death is the end of life; the irreversible cessation of all biological functions that sustain a living organism. Death eventually and inevitably occurs in all organisms. The remains of a former organism normally begin to decompose sh ...
and darkness due to the traditional (Western) connotations of the shade. "A woman also had to be pretty precise about where she wore flowers. Say, for instance, a suitor had sent her a tussie-mussie ( nosegay). If she pinned it to the 'cleavage of bosom', that would be bad news for him, since that signified friendship. Ah, but if she pinned it over her heart, 'That was an unambiguous declaration of love'." Details such as positioning of flowers and their buds were very important and carried different messages. The action of giving flowers served as a silent answer to a question. If flowers were presented with the right hand it would indicate the answer to the question was "yes", if the flowers were given with the left hand it meant "no". Important details such as which side the bow was tied determined if the message applied to the person presenting the flowers or the person receiving them. Later authors inspired by this tradition created lists that associate a birthday flower with each day of the year.


In literature

William Shakespeare William Shakespeare ( 23 April 1564 – 23 April 1616) was an English playwright, poet and actor. He is widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the world's pre-eminent dramatist. He is often called England's nation ...
,
Jane Austen Jane Austen ( ; 16 December 1775 – 18 July 1817) was an English novelist known primarily for #List of works, her six novels, which implicitly interpret, critique, and comment on the English landed gentry at the end of the 18th century ...
, Charlotte and Emily Brontë, and children's novelist Frances Hodgson Burnett, among others, used the language of flowers in their writings. Shakespeare used the word "flower" more than 100 times in his plays and sonnets. In ''
Hamlet ''The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark'', often shortened to ''Hamlet'' (), is a Shakespearean tragedy, tragedy written by William Shakespeare sometime between 1599 and 1601. It is Shakespeare's longest play. Set in Denmark, the play (the ...
'', Ophelia mentions the symbolic meanings of flowers and herbs as she hands them to other characters in Act 4, Scene 5: pansies, rosemary,
fennel Fennel (''Foeniculum vulgare'') is a flowering plant species in the carrot family. It is a hardy, perennial herb with yellow flowers and feathery leaves. It is indigenous to the shores of the Mediterranean but has become widely naturalized ...
, columbine, rue and daisy. She regrets she has no violets, she says, "... but they wither'd all when my father died". In '' The Winter's Tale'', the princess Perdita wishes that she had violets, daffodils, and primroses to make garlands for her friends. In '' A Midsummer Night's Dream'', Oberon talks to his messenger Puck amidst a scene of wild flowers. In J. K. Rowling's 1997 novel '' Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone'', Professor Severus Snape uses the language of flowers to express regret and mourning for the death of Lily Potter, his childhood friend and
Harry Potter ''Harry Potter'' is a series of seven Fantasy literature, fantasy novels written by British author J. K. Rowling. The novels chronicle the lives of a young Magician (fantasy), wizard, Harry Potter (character), Harry Potter, and his friends ...
's mother, according to '' Pottermore''. Flowers are often used as a symbol of femininity. John Steinbeck's short story " The Chrysanthemums" centers around the yellow florets, which are often associated with optimism and lost love. When the protagonist, Elisa, finds her beloved chrysanthemums tossed on the ground, her hobby and womanhood have been ruined; this suffices the themes of lost appreciation and femininity in Steinbeck's work. Hajime Isayama frequently used various types of flowers for symbolism and foreshadowing in his manga series ''
Attack on Titan is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Hajime Isayama. It is set in a world where humanity is forced to live in cities surrounded by three enormous walls that protect them from gigantic man-eating humanoids referred to a ...
'', which also includes Hanakotoba (花言葉), the Japanese form of floriography.


In art

Flower Flowers, also known as blooms and blossoms, are the reproductive structures of flowering plants ( angiosperms). Typically, they are structured in four circular levels, called whorls, around the end of a stalk. These whorls include: calyx, m ...
s have long served as more than mere decorative elements in art, often carrying rich symbolic meanings that reflect cultural, religious, and personal narratives. This tradition dates back centuries, with artists using floral imagery to communicate emotions, allegories, and social messages.


In Religion and Mythology

Throughout
art history Art history is the study of Work of art, artistic works made throughout human history. Among other topics, it studies art’s formal qualities, its impact on societies and cultures, and how artistic styles have changed throughout history. Tradit ...
, flowers have served as potent symbols, reflecting religious, cultural, and philosophical ideas through visual expression. Rather than solely appearing in myth or ritual, floral motifs have been integrated into artworks to convey deeper meanings across eras and regions. In Indian miniature paintings from the Mughal period, the lotus flower appears frequently alongside deities like Lakshmi and
Brahma Brahma (, ) is a Hindu god, referred to as "the Creator" within the Trimurti, the triple deity, trinity of Para Brahman, supreme divinity that includes Vishnu and Shiva.Jan Gonda (1969)The Hindu Trinity, Anthropos, Bd 63/64, H 1/2, pp. 212– ...
, symbolizing purity and spiritual awakening. Similarly, the Ajanta cave murals depict lotuses emerging from sacred ponds beneath figures of the Buddha, reinforcing its role as a symbol of spiritual growth. In Tibetan thangka paintings, color variations of the lotus convey symbolic meaning—white for purity, pink for the historical Buddha, and blue for wisdom. In
Renaissance The Renaissance ( , ) is a Periodization, period of history and a European cultural movement covering the 15th and 16th centuries. It marked the transition from the Middle Ages to modernity and was characterized by an effort to revive and sur ...
painting, artists like Sandro Botticelli used flowers to enhance allegorical narratives. In ''Primavera'' (1482), over 500 plant species are depicted, including the
rose A rose is either a woody perennial plant, perennial flowering plant of the genus ''Rosa'' (), in the family Rosaceae (), or the flower it bears. There are over three hundred Rose species, species and Garden roses, tens of thousands of cultivar ...
, which symbolizes
Venus Venus is the second planet from the Sun. It is often called Earth's "twin" or "sister" planet for having almost the same size and mass, and the closest orbit to Earth's. While both are rocky planets, Venus has an atmosphere much thicker ...
and divine love. The lily frequently appears in
Annunciation The Annunciation (; ; also referred to as the Annunciation to the Blessed Virgin Mary, the Annunciation of Our Lady, or the Annunciation of the Lord; ) is, according to the Gospel of Luke, the announcement made by the archangel Gabriel to Ma ...
scenes, such as in
Leonardo da Vinci Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci (15 April 1452 - 2 May 1519) was an Italian polymath of the High Renaissance who was active as a painter, draughtsman, engineer, scientist, theorist, sculptor, and architect. While his fame initially rested o ...
’s ''Annunciation'' (1472–76), where it signals the
Virgin Mary Mary was a first-century Jewish woman of Nazareth, the wife of Saint Joseph, Joseph and the mother of Jesus. She is an important figure of Christianity, venerated under titles of Mary, mother of Jesus, various titles such as Perpetual virginity ...
's purity and chastity.
Classical mythology Classical mythology, also known as Greco-Roman mythology or Greek and Roman mythology, is the collective body and study of myths from the ancient Greeks and ancient Romans. Mythology, along with philosophy and political thought, is one of the m ...
also influenced European art across centuries. The myth of Narcissus was captured by
Caravaggio Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio (also Michele Angelo Merigi or Amerighi da Caravaggio; 29 September 1571 – 18 July 1610), known mononymously as Caravaggio, was an Italian painter active in Rome for most of his artistic life. During the fina ...
's ''Narcissus'' (1597–99), using reflection and surrounding flowers to symbolize vanity and self-love. The story of Hyacinthus inspired Romantic works like Jean Broc’s ''The Death of Hyacinthus'' (1801), where the hyacinth flower becomes a symbol of grief and rebirth after the youth's tragic death. By examining these specific artworks and art movements, it becomes clear that flowers are not merely decorative motifs, but essential visual devices through which artists across cultures communicate cultural identity, spiritual values, and emotional depth.


In Western Art

In Western art, flowers have long been used as symbolic elements, conveying emotions, virtues, and hidden meanings. Their significance has evolved, reflecting cultural beliefs and artistic intentions. From time, the individual flowers do not hold much meaning, but their presence allows artists to communicate. For instance, the 17th-century Dutch still life painting, vanitas painting, often features decaying flowers to embody the transience of life. It is often included alongside objects that represent wealth to mirror the beauty of wealth and the inevitability of impending death. The popularity of floriography—the language of flowers—during the 19th century greatly influenced Western art. As Seaton mentions, during the
Victorian era In the history of the United Kingdom and the British Empire, the Victorian era was the reign of Queen Victoria, from 20 June 1837 until her death on 22 January 1901. Slightly different definitions are sometimes used. The era followed the ...
, flowers were given specific meanings, allowing artists to hide messages within their works. For example, Pre-Raphaelite painters often used flowers to symbolize purity, love, or mourning, drawing inspiration from floral dictionaries popular at the time. For John Everett Millais, the founder of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, plants were more than mere decorative elements in outdoor scenes; they were symbolic references drawn from a distinct literary and cultural context, reflecting his deliberate effort to remain faithful to his literary sources. His painting ''Ophelia'' (1851–52) depicts Ophelia after the fall, which is described in Act IV, Scene V of
Hamlet ''The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark'', often shortened to ''Hamlet'' (), is a Shakespearean tragedy, tragedy written by William Shakespeare sometime between 1599 and 1601. It is Shakespeare's longest play. Set in Denmark, the play (the ...
. Wild roses, forget-me-nots, poppies and violets painted around the drowning Ophelia symbolized her sad fate. The use of floral was popular in the
Art Nouveau Art Nouveau ( ; ; ), Jugendstil and Sezessionstil in German, is an international style of art, architecture, and applied art, especially the decorative arts. It was often inspired by natural forms such as the sinuous curves of plants and ...
movement and Alphonse Mucha was no exception. Throughout Mucha's body of work, he consistently gives prominence to floral elements—either by allowing them to occupy large portions of the composition or by making them visually distinct through the use of color and intricate detail. This deliberate emphasis not only captures the viewer's attention but also suggests that Mucha intended for these flowers to be noticed. File:The_Lily_Alphonse_Mucha.jpg, The Flowers: Lily, 1898, Alphonse Mucha File:Alfons_Mucha_-_The_Seasons_(series),_1896.jpg, The Seasons (series), 1896, Alphonse Mucha


In East Asian Art

Flowers in
Chinese art Chinese art is visual art that originated in or is practiced in China, Greater China or by Chinese artists. Art created by Chinese residing outside of China can also be considered a part of Chinese art when it is based on or draws on Chine ...
are deeply symbolic, often representing virtues, philosophical ideals, and cultural beliefs. The plum blossom (梅花), for instance, is celebrated for its resilience and purity, blooming vibrantly amidst the harshness of winter. This enduring quality has made it a symbol of perseverance and hope, frequently depicted in traditional paintings to convey strength in adversity. Additionally, the plum blossom is recognized as one of the " Four Gentlemen" (四君子) in Chinese art, representing noble virtues alongside the orchid, bamboo, and chrysanthemum. In Japanese art, plum blossoms are frequently depicted to convey resilience and hope, resonating with cultural values that esteem endurance through hardships. Similarly, the lotus flower (荷花) holds significant meaning, symbolizing purity and spiritual enlightenment. Emerging untainted from muddy waters, the lotus embodies the idea of transcending impurities, a concept deeply rooted in Buddhist philosophy. This symbolism is prevalent in various art forms, including paintings and sculptures, where the lotus often serves as a metaphor for inner beauty and moral integrity. Wu Bin's ''Lotus Out of Water'' (n.d.) presents a vivid depiction of a lotus flower emerging from the water, capturing the essence of purity and enlightenment associated with the lotus in Chinese symbolism. This artwork is housed in the Beijing Palace Museum and is noted as one of the oldest lotus paintings in its collection. In Chinese ink painting, especially during the Tang and
Song A song is a musical composition performed by the human voice. The voice often carries the melody (a series of distinct and fixed pitches) using patterns of sound and silence. Songs have a structure, such as the common ABA form, and are usu ...
dynasties, the
peony The peony or paeony () is any flowering plant in the genus ''Paeonia'', the only genus in the family Paeoniaceae. Peonies are native to Asia, Europe, and Western North America. Scientists differ on the number of species that can be distinguish ...
—regarded as the “King of Flowers”—became a symbol of wealth, nobility, and feminine grace. Artists such as Yun Shouping of the
Qing dynasty The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing, was a Manchu-led Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China and an early modern empire in East Asia. The last imperial dynasty in Chinese history, the Qing dynasty was preceded by the ...
used refined brushwork to capture its grandeur. In
Japanese culture Japanese culture has changed greatly over the millennia, from the country's prehistoric Jōmon period, to its contemporary modern culture, which absorbs influences from Asia and other regions of the world. Since the Jomon period, ancestral ...
, the language of flowers, known as Hanakotoba (花言葉), assigns specific meanings to various blooms, allowing for nuanced emotional expression through floral imagery. The cherry blossom (桜 or sakura), for example, epitomizes the transient nature of life due to its brief blooming period, reflecting the aesthetic principle of mono no aware, which appreciates the beauty of ephemeral things. This symbolism is deeply ingrained in Japanese art and
literature Literature is any collection of Writing, written work, but it is also used more narrowly for writings specifically considered to be an art form, especially novels, Play (theatre), plays, and poetry, poems. It includes both print and Electroni ...
, where cherry blossoms often evoke themes of mortality and the fleeting beauty of existence. In Japanese
ukiyo-e is a genre of Japanese art that flourished from the 17th through 19th centuries. Its artists produced woodblock printing, woodblock prints and Nikuhitsu-ga, paintings of such subjects as female beauties; kabuki actors and sumo wrestlers; scenes ...
woodblock prints, Utagawa Hiroshige frequently depicted cherry blossoms, emphasizing the fleeting nature of life—a visual interpretation of Buddhist impermanence.


In Islamic Art

Flowers play a central role in Islamic art, where they often symbolize spiritual ideas, the transcendence of nature, and the concept of divine beauty. Due to the traditional prohibition against depicting sentient beings in religious contexts, Islamic artists developed highly stylized floral motifs, integrating them into intricate geometric and arabesque designs that adorn architecture, manuscripts, and decorative objects. These motifs are not merely ornamental—they serve as visual metaphors for the perfection and infinite nature of God. One prominent example is the Alhambra Palace in Granada,
Spain Spain, or the Kingdom of Spain, is a country in Southern Europe, Southern and Western Europe with territories in North Africa. Featuring the Punta de Tarifa, southernmost point of continental Europe, it is the largest country in Southern Eur ...
, where floral patterns are embedded into stucco carvings and glazed tile work, reflecting the Islamic worldview that nature mirrors divine order and harmony. Similarly, in Persian miniature painting, flowers such as the lotus and
rose A rose is either a woody perennial plant, perennial flowering plant of the genus ''Rosa'' (), in the family Rosaceae (), or the flower it bears. There are over three hundred Rose species, species and Garden roses, tens of thousands of cultivar ...
frequently appear as symbolic elements within spiritual and poetic narratives, representing purity, divine love, and enlightenment. In
Sufism Sufism ( or ) is a mysticism, mystic body of religious practice found within Islam which is characterized by a focus on Islamic Tazkiyah, purification, spirituality, ritualism, and Asceticism#Islam, asceticism. Practitioners of Sufism are r ...
, the mystical branch of Islam, floral imagery takes on even deeper meaning. The rose, in particular, is often used in
Sufi poetry Sufi literature consists of works in various languages that express and advocate the ideas of Sufism. Sufism had an important influence on medieval literature, especially poetry, that was written in Arabic, New Persian, Persian, Punjabi language ...
and visual symbolism to represent the divine beloved and the soul's longing for unity with God. This can be seen in the works of Rumi, where the rose becomes a recurring motif for mystical love and transcendence. Additionally, floral motifs in Islamic ceramics and textiles are not only valued for their beauty but also evoke an image of paradise, believed to be a garden in which flowers bloom eternally.


In Modern and Contemporary Art

In modern and
contemporary art Contemporary art is a term used to describe the art of today, generally referring to art produced from the 1970s onwards. Contemporary artists work in a globally influenced, culturally diverse, and technologically advancing world. Their art is a ...
, the language of flowers has been reimagined to convey a diverse array of themes, including beauty, decay, identity, and socio-political commentary. Artists have moved beyond traditional symbolism, utilizing floral imagery to explore complex human experiences and cultural narratives. For instance, street artist Banksy's 2003 mural '' Flower Thrower'' depicts a masked figure poised to throw a bouquet of flowers, juxtaposing the act of violence with a symbol of peace and hope. This work challenges viewers to reconsider notions of conflict and protest, suggesting that compassion can be a powerful agent for change.   Contemporary artists continue to reinterpret floral motifs to address current issues. For example, the exhibition "''Forever is Now''" held around the pyramids of Giza featured Shilo Shiv Suleman's installation ''Padma/Pulse and Bloom'', consisting of giant lotus flowers. Drawing from both Eastern and Western symbolism, her work creates a space for connection and tranquility, seamlessly blending ancient Indian and Egyptian imagery. Additionally, artists like Takashi Murakami have reimagined flowers in bold and colorful style. Murakami asserts that his flowers reflect the trauma and emotional complexity experienced in
Japan Japan is an island country in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean off the northeast coast of the Asia, Asian mainland, it is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan and extends from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea ...
following
World War II World War II or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War II, Allies and the Axis powers. World War II by country, Nearly all of the wo ...
.


The Language of Flowers Around the World

Though the language of flowers is popularly known through its romantic and Victorian roots, this practice is not new to other parts of the world. This said, there is no universally accepted set of meanings for flowers. Instead of a standardized symbolic system, floral symbolism functioned as a collection of associations, with interpretations varying between different books and sources. The books that compile floral vocabularies, often referred to as "language of flowers" books, belong to a broader category of sentimental flower literature. Unlike botanical or horticultural texts that focus on scientific classification or cultivation, these works emphasize the emotional and symbolic associations of flowers, reflecting themes of sentiment and personal meaning rather than practical uses.


Esoteric Aspects of Nature

The way it's interpreted through nature can differ greatly depending on the perspective it takes. Philosophers often view nature as esoteric, filled with hidden meanings, while scientists, adhering to a positivist approach, see it as a system that can be fully understood through study and exploration. These contrasting views have long created a divide between the two schools of thought. However, nature has always held a deep significance in human culture, influencing religion, mythology, and symbolism. Scholars of symbolism have explored how nature, especially through its plants and flowers, communicates a hidden language. This symbolic language has shaped human culture, offering diverse interpretations of natural phenomena across different societies and time periods. Also, since ancient times, flowers have fascinated people, who have dedicated considerable effort to cultivating them, even without a clear practical benefit. On the other hand, while certain symbolic themes are common across cultures, each era has developed its own interpretation of flowers, expanding and enriching the language of floral symbolism through literature and customs. The significance of nature, particularly flowers, is evident even in prehistoric times, as shown by the discovery of flowers in ancient burial sites, where they were placed as part of rituals, reflecting their spiritual importance to early humans. So, a flower is more than just a visual object, it can carry profound symbolic meanings that resonate with human emotions and experiences.


Cultural and Religious Nuances

When considering the relationship between humans and flowers through a cultural lens, it can be examined through the varied perceptual experiences that different flowers evoke. The way individuals within a specific culture process floral imagery and construct meanings around flowers is shaped by their sensory interpretations and cultural influences. Cultural interactions are often fluid, overlapping, and, at times, contradictory. Recognizing these complex relationships is essential, as the blending of different cultural elements can produce both ambiguous meanings and paradoxical effects, making the process of cultural exchange more intricate than it may initially appear. Flowers have been used by cultures throughout history to express their unique perspectives on life. From mythology and symbolism to religion, art, literature, crafts, and industry, flowers have long held a special place in human expression. This enduring fascination with flowers has given rise to a symbolic language that resonates across cultures worldwide.


Historical Background Across Cultures


Ancient Egypt

The ancient Egyptians, known for their deep religiosity, expressed their reverence for nature through a profound appreciation for plants, particularly flowers. They are credited with the early tradition of associating flowers with the deceased, using them in burial rituals as a form of purification.


Israel

In contrast, the Hebrews incorporated flowers into celebratory feasts, such as
Pentecost Pentecost (also called Whit Sunday, Whitsunday or Whitsun) is a Christianity, Christian holiday which takes place on the 49th day (50th day when inclusive counting is used) after Easter Day, Easter. It commemorates the descent of the Holy Spiri ...
, a festival of gratitude for a successful harvest, and the Feast of Tabernacles, marking the arrival of autumn.


Hinduism

In Hindu tradition, flowers are linked to the element of air or aether, while in China, where rituals hold great significance, Tantric-Taoist symbolism views flowers as a tool for spiritual enlightenment, representing inner transformation akin to the elixir of longevity.


Japan

Among floral traditions, Japanese
Ikebana is the Japanese art of flower arrangement. It is also known as . The origin of ikebana can be traced back to the ancient Japanese custom of erecting Evergreen, evergreen trees and decorating them with flowers as yorishiro () to invite the go ...
stands out as the highest form of symbolic floral arrangement. This art follows a ternary structure, where the tallest branch represents heaven, the middle branch signifies humanity, and the lowest branch symbolizes the earth, positioning man as the bridge between the two realms. The development of Ikebana and Hanakotoba (the language of flowers) in Japan is deeply intertwined with religious and philosophical traditions, particularly
Shinto , also called Shintoism, is a religion originating in Japan. Classified as an East Asian religions, East Asian religion by Religious studies, scholars of religion, it is often regarded by its practitioners as Japan's indigenous religion and as ...
and
Buddhism Buddhism, also known as Buddhadharma and Dharmavinaya, is an Indian religion and List of philosophies, philosophical tradition based on Pre-sectarian Buddhism, teachings attributed to the Buddha, a wandering teacher who lived in the 6th or ...
. Both belief systems emphasize a profound respect for nature and its spiritual significance. In Shinto, all elements of the natural world are believed to possess a spirit or energy, reinforcing the idea that nature is alive and interconnected with human existence. This worldview likely contributed to the enduring presence of floral symbolism in Japanese culture and literature. Scholar Davis F. Hadland highlights this relationship, stating, “Take away their landscape, and you take away at once their sense of poetry, and, we may almost add, the floral side of their religion too, for the Japanese worship flowers and trees in a way utterly impossible to the more prosaic Westerner” (2014, p. 155).


Ancient Greece

The ancient Greeks, on the other hand, with their appreciation for aesthetics, celebrated flowers through art and architecture, immortalizing their beauty in mosaics, friezes, and vase paintings, where flowers were closely associated with joy and the pleasures of life. This love and appreciation for flowers is evident, especially in their mythology and literature, often tied to themes of transformation, life, and death. For example, Daphne, a nymph, turned into a laurel tree to escape
Apollo Apollo is one of the Twelve Olympians, Olympian deities in Ancient Greek religion, ancient Greek and Ancient Roman religion, Roman religion and Greek mythology, Greek and Roman mythology. Apollo has been recognized as a god of archery, mu ...
, making the laurel a symbol of victory and divine favor. The pomegranate, linked to
Persephone In ancient Greek mythology and Ancient Greek religion, religion, Persephone ( ; , classical pronunciation: ), also called Kore ( ; ) or Cora, is the daughter of Zeus and Demeter. She became the queen of the Greek underworld, underworld afte ...
, held significance in the Underworld, representing the cycle of life and death. Here are some notable flowers in Greek mythology: ''Table 1'' These flowers had a significant influence on Greek culture, leaving a visible mark in various forms. In art, they were commonly featured as prominent motifs on pottery dating back to the sixth century BCE. Red-figure vases, for instance, often depicted women holding wreaths of myrtle and rose in wedding scenes, while the
Parthenon frieze The Parthenon frieze is the low-relief Mount Pentelicus#Pentelic marble, Pentelic marble sculpture created to adorn the upper part of the Parthenon's Cella, naos. It was sculpted between and 437 BC, most likely under the direction of Phidias. O ...
showed maidens carrying flower baskets during religious processions.


Eastern vs. Western Interpretations

A key distinction between Eastern and Western floral symbolism lies in the selection of flowers, which varies across cultures and complicates the idea of a universal floral language. In Western traditions, the rose is considered the "queen of flowers," while in China, the tree peony holds greater symbolic significance as the "king of flowers." In addition, in both China and Japan and many Buddhist countries, the lotus is the most significant religious flower symbol, closely associated with Buddha. Representing truth, perfection, and immortality (Koehn, ''Japanese Flower Symbolism''), it frequently appears in depictions of Buddha and references to his teachings. ''Table 2'' (Clement; Koehn, Japanese Flower Symbolism; and Koehn, Chinese Flower Symbolism)


In the 21st century

Floriography in the 21st century has been reduced but has been displayed in different ways. For example, tattoos of flowers and plants may carry symbolism and significance which relate to their historical meaning. The same can be said for jewelry designed and worn based on what the flowers represent. Floriography can still be found in traditional ways through bouquets, a common example of this would be the common practice of gifting red roses on Valentine's Day to represent love and romance and wearing poppies for remembrance. The gifting of flowers is not always personal, businesses and organizations may send floral arrangements to communicate professionalism and success. While the traditional use of floriography may have changed, the symbolism of flowers continues to provide a connection between humans and nature.


See also

*
Floral emblem In a number of countries, plants have been chosen as symbols to represent specific geographic areas. Some countries have a country-wide floral emblem; others in addition have symbols representing subdivisions. Different processes have been used t ...
* – Japanese flower language * Plant symbolism * '' Sub rosa''


References


Further reading


"History of the Language of Flowers"
a chapter excerpted from the book ''Flowers, the Angels' Alphabet'' by Susan Loy, 2001.
''The Victorian Language of Flowers - Occasional Papers volume 10''
Occasional Papers of the RHS Lindley Library, volume 10, April 2013. Gives a full overview of the topic and a comparison of the meanings of flowers from a selection of language of flowers books in the RHS Lindley Libraries. * Scans of 19th-century books on the language of flowers: ** Charlotte de La Tour (in French),
Le langage des fleurs
', 7e éd., Paris : Garnier Frères, 1858. At
Google Books Google Books (previously known as Google Book Search, Google Print, and by its code-name Project Ocean) is a service from Google that searches the full text of books and magazines that Google has scanned, converted to text using optical charac ...
. ** Kate Greenaway (illustration)
''Language of Flowers''
n.d. Via the
Internet Archive The Internet Archive is an American 501(c)(3) organization, non-profit organization founded in 1996 by Brewster Kahle that runs a digital library website, archive.org. It provides free access to collections of digitized media including web ...
. ** Nehemiah Cleaveland
''The Flowers Personified''
New York: R Martin, 1849. Via the Internet Archive.


External links

* * {{Authority control Victorian culture