''La Flora, o vero Il natal de' fiori'' (Flora, or The Birth of Flowers) is an

opera Opera is a form of History of theatre#European theatre, Western theatre in which music is a fundamental component and dramatic roles are taken by Singing, singers. Such a "work" (the literal translation of the Italian word "opera") is typically ...

in a

prologue A prologue or prolog (from Ancient Greek πρόλογος ''prólogos'', from πρό ''pró'', "before" and λόγος ''lógos'', "speech") is an opening to a story that establishes the context and gives background details, often some earlier st ...

and five acts composed by

Marco da Gagliano Marco da Gagliano (1 May 1582 – 25 February 1643) was an Italian composer of the early Baroque music, Baroque era. He was important in the early history of opera and the development of the solo and concerted madrigal (music), madrigal. Li ...

and

Jacopo Peri Jacopo Peri (20 August 156112 August 1633) was an Italian composer, singer and instrumentalist of the late Renaissance music, Renaissance and early Baroque music, Baroque periods. He wrote what is considered the first opera, the mostly lost ''D ...

to a

libretto A libretto (From the Italian word , ) is the text used in, or intended for, an extended musical work such as an opera, operetta, masque, oratorio, cantata or Musical theatre, musical. The term ''libretto'' is also sometimes used to refer to th ...

by Andrea Salvadori. It was first performed on 14 October 1628 at the Teatro Mediceo in Florence to celebrate the marriage of

Margherita de' Medici Margherita de' Medici (31 May 1612 – 6 February 1679) was Duchess of Parma and Piacenza by her marriage to Odoardo Farnese, Duke of Parma. Margherita was regent of Piacenza in 1635, and regent of the entire duchy from 1646 until 1648 durin ...

and

Odoardo Farnese, Duke of Parma Odoardo Farnese (28 April 1612 – 11 September 1646), also known as Odoardo I Farnese to distinguish him from his grandson Odoardo II Farnese, was Duke of Parma, Piacenza and Castro from 1622 to 1646. Biography Odoardo was the eldest legiti ...

. Based on the story of

Chloris In Greek mythology, the name Chloris (; Greek Χλωρίς ''Chlōrís'', from χλωρός ''chlōrós'', meaning "greenish-yellow", "pale green", "pale", "pallid", or "fresh") appears in a variety of contexts. Some clearly refer to different ch ...

and

Zephyrus In Greek mythology and religion, Zephyrus () (), also spelled in English as Zephyr (), is the god and personification of the West wind, one of the several wind gods, the Anemoi. The son of Eos (the goddess of the dawn) and Astraeus, Zephyrus is t ...

in Book V of

Ovid Publius Ovidius Naso (; 20 March 43 BC – AD 17/18), known in English as Ovid ( ), was a Augustan literature (ancient Rome), Roman poet who lived during the reign of Augustus. He was a younger contemporary of Virgil and Horace, with whom he i ...

's ''

Fasti In ancient Rome, the ''fasti'' (Latin plural) were chronological or calendar-based lists, or other diachronic records or plans of official and religiously sanctioned events. After Rome's decline, the word ''fasti'' continued to be used for simi ...

'', Salvadori's libretto contains many allegorical references to the transfer of political power, the beauty of

Tuscany Tuscany ( ; ) is a Regions of Italy, region in central Italy with an area of about and a population of 3,660,834 inhabitants as of 2025. The capital city is Florence. Tuscany is known for its landscapes, history, artistic legacy, and its in ...

, and the strength of the Medici dynasty. The score of ''La Flora'' is one of only two still in existence out of Gagliano's 14 published stage works. Several of its arias are still performed as concert pieces.

Background

The path to the wedding of

and

Odoardo Farnese Odoardo Farnese may refer to: *Odoardo Farnese (cardinal) (1573–1626) * Odoardo Farnese, Duke of Parma (1612–1646) *Odoardo Farnese, Hereditary Prince of Parma Odoardo Farnese (12 August 1666 – 6 September 1693) was the eldest son of Duke ...

, and to the opera which was to be a key part of the celebrations, was not a smooth one. Their marriage had been contracted in 1620 when they were both children and was intended to strengthen the alliance between Florence and Parma. There were two failed attempts by the Medici family to break the contract along the way, first in 1624 by Margherita's mother Grand Duchess Maria Maddalena who had preferred her nephew Prince Wladyslaw of Poland and later by Margherita's brother, Ferdinando II, who had favoured

Gaston, Duke of Orléans ''Monsieur'' Gaston, Duke of Orléans (Gaston Jean Baptiste; 24 April 1608 – 2 February 1660), was the third son of King Henry IV of France and his second wife, Marie de' Medici. As a son of the king, he was born a . He later acquired the title ...

. However, Parma held firm, and although an official date for Margherita and Odoardo's wedding had still not been set by mid-1627, preparations went ahead for the festivities, including an opera to be performed in the Teatro Mediceo (once part of the Uffizi Palace). The libretto for ''La Flora'' was written by Andrea Salvadori, who had been employed by the Medici as their court poet since 1616 and had provided the texts and libretti for numerous musical spectacles there, both sacred and secular. The opera he had originally planned for the wedding celebrations was ''Iole ed Ercole'' (

Iole In Greek mythology, Iole (; ) was the daughter of King Eurytus of Oechalia. According to the brief epitome in the ''Bibliotheca (Pseudo-Apollodorus), Bibliotheca'', Eurytus had a beautiful young daughter named Iole who was eligible for marriage ...

and

Hercules Hercules (, ) is the Roman equivalent of the Greek divine hero Heracles, son of Jupiter and the mortal Alcmena. In classical mythology, Hercules is famous for his strength and for his numerous far-ranging adventures. The Romans adapted the Gr ...

) for which

had already composed the music by the end of 1627. However, during that time Salvadori was engaged in a feud with the singer and composer,

Francesca Caccini Francesca Caccini (; 18 September 1587 – most likely between 1641 and 1645) was an Italian composer, singer, lutenist, poet, and music teacher of the early Baroque era. She was also known by the nickname La Cecchina , given to her by the Floren ...

. According to contemporary accounts, Caccini took her revenge by convincing Maria Magdalena and her daughter that the subject of the opera might be interpreted as reflecting Margherita's desire to control her new husband. Salvadori had to write a new libretto, this time basing it on the tale of the field nymph

and the wind god

as recounted in Book V of

's ''

''. (Ovid's version attributed the origin of the goddess

Flora Flora (: floras or florae) is all the plant life present in a particular region or time, generally the naturally occurring (indigenous (ecology), indigenous) native plant, native plants. The corresponding term for animals is ''fauna'', and for f ...

to the marriage of Zephyrus and Chloris which transformed the nymph into a goddess.)

, who had previously collaborated with Salvadori on several works, composed all the music for ''La Flora'' apart from that sung by Clori (Chloris), which was composed by Jacopo Peri. Maria Maddalena took an active role in the planning of the production. She secured the services of the musicians and singers, attended the rehearsals, and according to the musicologist Kelley Harness, may well have contributed to the development of the plot which contains many allegorical references to the transfer of political power, the beauty of Tuscany, and the strength of the Medici dynasty.

Performance history

''La Flora'' was performed on 14 October 1628, three days after the wedding of Margherita de' Medici and Odoardo Farnese, and was the last major spectacle to be staged in the Teatro Mediceo. The lavish production was designed by

Alfonso Parigi Alfonso Parigi the Younger (1606–1656) was an Italian architect and scenographer, the son of Giulio Parigi, and grandson of Alfonso Parigi the Elder. He worked mainly in Florence, beginning at a very early age as his father's assistant. After ...

, who also produced engravings of the major scenes from the opera to illustrate the libretto which was published in the same year as a festival book.

Marin Mersenne Marin Mersenne, OM (also known as Marinus Mersennus or ''le Père'' Mersenne; ; 8 September 1588 – 1 September 1648) was a French polymath whose works touched a wide variety of fields. He is perhaps best known today among mathematicians for ...

writing in ''L'Harmonie universelle'' (1637) described the reactions of those who attended:

The spectatators declared that they had never heard nor seen anything like it, either for the beauty of the recitative that each actor gave in reciting and singing on the stage, or for the majesty of the poetry, or for the richness, and the machines that represented the thunders and lightenings, and other storms with such perfection that the spectators remained astounded and ravished.

In early 17th century Italy, works specifically composed to be performed privately in court theatres for royal occasions (especially those involving lavish spectacle) were rarely repeated. ''La Flora'' was no exception. However, it did receive at least one staging in modern times when it was performed in 2002 at the Teatro Comunale in

Fontanellato Fontanellato (Parmigiano dialect, Parmigiano: ) is a small town in the province of Parma, in northern Italy. It lies on the plains of the River Po near the Autostrada A1 (Italy), A1 autostrada, about west of Parma towards Piacenza. The town was ...

by I Madrigalisti Farnesiani and Collegium Farnesianum conducted by Marco Faelli. Two reduced forms of the libretto, under the title ''Natale de' Fiori'' and intended for performance as a comic play without music, were published in Milan in 1667 (by the actors Pietro Ricciolini and Ambrogio Broglia) and in Venice in 1669 (by the actress Domenica Costantini). Several theatre scholars have suggested that the libretto, along with Parigi's stage designs, may also have been a key source for

Ben Jonson Benjamin Jonson ( 11 June 1572 – ) was an English playwright, poet and actor. Jonson's artistry exerted a lasting influence on English poetry and stage comedy. He popularised the comedy of humours; he is best known for the satire, satirical ...

's 1631

masque The masque was a form of festive courtly entertainment that flourished in 16th- and early 17th-century Europe, though it was developed earlier in Italy, in forms including the intermedio (a public version of the masque was the pageant). A mas ...

, ''

Chloridia ''Chloridia: Rites to Chloris and Her Nymphs'' was the final masque that Ben Jonson wrote for the Stuart Court. It was performed at Shrovetide, 22 February 1631, with costumes, sets and stage effects designed by Inigo Jones. The masque ''Chlori ...

''. Of Gagliano's 14 published operas, only ''

La Dafne ''La Dafne'' (''Daphne'') is an early Italian opera, written in 1608 by the Italian composer Marco da Gagliano from a libretto by Ottavio Rinuccini. It is described as a ''favola in musica'' (fable set to music) composed in one act and a prolo ...

'' (1608) and ''La Flora'' have extant scores. Several arias from ''La Flora'' have since been published separately and are still performed as concert pieces including "Lamento di Clori" (Clori's Lament, composed by Peri); Corilla's aria "Io era pargoletta" (I was a little child); and Mercury's lullaby "Dormi, Amore" (Sleep, Amor).

Ezio Pinza Ezio Fortunato Pinza (May 18, 1892May 9, 1957) was an Italian opera singer. Pinza possessed a rich, smooth and sonorous voice, with a flexibility unusual for a bass. He spent 22 seasons at New York's Metropolitan Opera, appearing in more than 75 ...

, who performed "Dormi, Amore" in several concerts and on

The Bell Telephone Hour ''The Bell Telephone Hour'', also known as ''The Telephone Hour'', is a concert series broadcast on NBC Radio Network from April 29, 1940 to June 30, 1958. Sponsored by Bell Telephone as the name implies, it showcased the best in classical and ...

, recorded it for Columbia Records in 1945.

Roles

''La Flora'' also included five extended dances ( balli), one in each act.Daye (2007) p. 86 The names of the dancers, singers and musicians who took part in the opera's first performance are largely unknown, apart from the

castrato A castrato (Italian; : castrati) is a male singer who underwent castration before puberty in order to retain a singing voice equivalent to that of a soprano, mezzo-soprano, or contralto. The voice can also occur in one who, due to an endocrino ...

singer

Loreto Vittori Loreto Vittori (5 September 1600 (baptized) – 23 April 1670) was an Italian castrato and composer. From 1622 until his death, he was a mezzo-soprano singer in the papal chapel in Rome. Life Vittori was born in Spoleto and educated in Rome. ...

(1600–70) and the musician

Andrea Falconieri Andrea Falconieri (1585 or 1586 – 1656), also known as Falconiero, was an Italian composer and lutenist from Naples. He resided in Parma from 1604 until 1614, and later moved to Rome, and then back to his native Naples, where in 1647 he beca ...

, who like Vittori had been imported from Rome.

Synopsis

Setting: The Tuscan countryside in ancient timesSynopsis based on the libretto in Gagliano and Court (2011) ;Prologue

Hymen The hymen is a thin piece of mucosal tissue that surrounds or partially covers the vaginal opening. A small percentage of females are born with hymens that are imperforate and completely obstruct the vaginal canal. It forms part of the vulva ...

(Imeneo) sings the praises of the newly wed

and

and their respective states, Tuscany and Parma. He augurs a long, happy and fertile marriage for them and offers for their delight the love story of

(Clori) and

(Zeffiro). ;Act 1 Mercury (Mercurio) summons the Earth goddess

Cybele Cybele ( ; Phrygian: ''Matar Kubileya, Kubeleya'' "Kubeleya Mother", perhaps "Mountain Mother"; Lydian: ''Kuvava''; ''Kybélē'', ''Kybēbē'', ''Kybelis'') is an Anatolian mother goddess; she may have a possible forerunner in the earliest ...

(Berecinzia). A mountain slowly opens and she appears in her grotto. Mercury announces

Jove Jupiter ( or , from Proto-Italic "day, sky" + "father", thus "sky father" Greek: Δίας or Ζεύς), also known as Jove ( nom. and gen. ), is the god of the sky and thunder, and king of the gods in ancient Roman religion and mytholog ...

's decree that Earth shall have flowers, just as the heavens have stars, and that these flowers will be born of the union of Chloris, a

nymph A nymph (; ; sometimes spelled nymphe) is a minor female nature deity in ancient Greek folklore. Distinct from other Greek goddesses, nymphs are generally regarded as personifications of nature; they are typically tied to a specific place, land ...

of the Tuscan fields, and Zephyrus, god of the spring wind. Zephyrus tells Venus (Venere) of his love for Chloris. She in turn tells him that she will ensure that his pursuit of the nymph will be successful. Amor (Amore) expresses his displeasure at this and vows to thwart Zephyrus. Venus sends him away. Pan (Pane) pursues Corilla, a nymph and Chloris's friend. Corilla rejects him because of his ugliness and proclaims her love for the shepherd, Lirindo. Pan is furious and blames Amor.

Triton Triton commonly refers to: * Triton (mythology), a Greek god * Triton (moon), a satellite of Neptune Triton may also refer to: Biology * Triton cockatoo, a parrot * Triton (gastropod), a group of sea snails * ''Triton'', a synonym of ''Triturus' ...

s and

Nereid In Greek mythology, the Nereids or Nereides ( ; ; , also Νημερτές) are sea nymphs (female spirits of sea waters), the 50 daughters of the ' Old Man of the Sea' Nereus and the Oceanid Doris, sisters to their brother Nerites. They ofte ...

s remonstrate with Pan and sing the praises of Amor, Venus, and the Sun as they perform a dance. ;Act 2 Zephyrus woos Chloris, "Giovinetta, che si dolce" (Young girl, who so sweetly), but she tells him that she has renounced love and wishes to emulate the chaste goddess

Diana Diana most commonly refers to: * Diana (name), given name (including a list of people with the name) * Diana (mythology), ancient Roman goddess of the hunt and wild animals; later associated with the Moon * Diana, Princess of Wales (1961–1997), ...

. Amor complains bitterly to Mercury about Venus usurping his power to determine who falls in love. Mercury summons the Three Graces and together they sing a lullaby to him, "Dormi, Amore" (Sleep, Amor). As soon as he falls asleep, Mercury makes off with his bows and arrows and his torch. The

satyr In Greek mythology, a satyr (, ), also known as a silenus or ''silenos'' ( ), and sileni (plural), is a male List of nature deities, nature spirit with ears and a tail resembling those of a horse, as well as a permanent, exaggerated erection. ...

s come upon Amor and dance around him as they ridicule him for allowing his weapons to be stolen. ;Act 3 La Flora Act 5 stage set by Alfonso Parigi

Corilla sings of her love for Lirindo, "Io era pargoletta" (I was a little child). Lirindo joins her and likewise sings of his love for her. She then tells Lirindo that Chloris is now deeply in love with Zephyrus and wonders what has brought about her friend's change of heart. Lirindo explains that Mercury had brought Amor's stolen weapons to Venus, who used his golden bow and arrow to make Chloris fall in love with Zephyrus. On hearing this from Chloris herself, Amor confronts Venus demanding his weapons back, but she tells him that she has given the golden bow to Jove, thrown his leaden bow into the sea, and kept his torch for herself. In a fury, Amor descends to

Hades Hades (; , , later ), in the ancient Greek religion and Greek mythology, mythology, is the god of the dead and the king of the Greek underworld, underworld, with which his name became synonymous. Hades was the eldest son of Cronus and Rhea ...

and brings Jealousy (Gelosia) back to Earth with him. Pan once again complains to Triton about the perfidy and hatefulness of women, who again remonstrates with him. A chorus of

cupids Cupids is a town of 699 people (per the 2021 Census) on Conception Bay, Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada. It has also been known as Coopers, Copers Cove, Cuper's Cove, and Cuperts. It is the oldest continuously settled official British colo ...

arrive to taunt Pan as they sing and dance around him. ;Act 4 At Amor's instigation, Pan (falsely) tells Chloris that Zephyrus has been unfaithful to her. Heartbroken, she drives Zephyrus away, leaving the Tuscan lands in the grip of

Auster Auster may refer to: Places * Auster Glacier, located in East Antarctica * Auster Islands, East Antarctica * Auster Pass, located in East Antarctica * Auster Point, located in West Antarctica Other uses * Auster Aircraft, a former British air ...

(Austro) and

Boreas Boreas (, , , , ; also , ) is the Greek god of the cold north wind, storms, and winter. Although he was normally taken as the north wind, the Roman writers Aulus Gellius and Pliny the Elder both took Boreas as a northeast wind, equivalent to th ...

(Borea), the gods of the north wind and south winds. The sky darkens and they bring down enormous storms with thunder, lightning, and hail. The

Napaeae A nymph (; ; sometimes spelled nymphe) is a minor female nature deity in ancient Greek folklore. Distinct from other Greek goddesses, nymphs are generally regarded as personifications of nature; they are typically tied to a specific place, la ...

and Nereids lament the ruination of the fields and forests and flee. The act ends with a violent Dance of the

Storms A storm is any disturbed state of the natural environment or the atmosphere of an astronomical body. It may be marked by significant disruptions to normal conditions such as strong wind, tornadoes, hail, thunder and lightning (a thunderstorm) ...

. ;Act 5 The gods intervene to restore order. Jove returns Amor's golden bow and

Neptune Neptune is the eighth and farthest known planet from the Sun. It is the List of Solar System objects by size, fourth-largest planet in the Solar System by diameter, the third-most-massive planet, and the densest giant planet. It is 17 t ...

(Nettuno) brings back the leaden one which Venus had thrown into the sea. Chloris laments her fate, contrasting it to Corilla and Lirindo's happiness and expresses her desire for death, "Fortunata Corilla" (Fortunate Corilla). At Venus and Mercury's urging, Amor realizes the error of his ways and tells the truth to Chloris. The love of Chloris and Zephyrus now restored, spring returns. Amor weeps and where his tears fall to Earth flowers appear. Zephyrus gives Chloris a new name,

, and transforms her into the goddess of springtime and flowers. She then sings of the future grandeur of

Florence Florence ( ; ) is the capital city of the Italy, Italian region of Tuscany. It is also the most populated city in Tuscany, with 362,353 inhabitants, and 989,460 in Metropolitan City of Florence, its metropolitan province as of 2025. Florence ...

Apollo Apollo is one of the Twelve Olympians, Olympian deities in Ancient Greek religion, ancient Greek and Ancient Roman religion, Roman religion and Greek mythology, Greek and Roman mythology. Apollo has been recognized as a god of archery, mu ...

appears riding

Pegasus Pegasus (; ) is a winged horse in Greek mythology, usually depicted as a white stallion. He was sired by Poseidon, in his role as horse-god, and foaled by the Gorgon Medusa. Pegasus was the brother of Chrysaor, both born from Medusa's blood w ...

as the

Muses In ancient Greek religion and Greek mythology, mythology, the Muses (, ) were the Artistic inspiration, inspirational goddesses of literature, science, and the arts. They were considered the source of the knowledge embodied in the poetry, lyric p ...

bring the Hippocrene Fountain to water the flowers. Apollo praises the

lily ''Lilium'' ( ) is a genus of herbaceous flowering plants growing from bulbs, all with large and often prominent flowers. Lilies are a group of flowering plants which are important in culture and literature in much of the world. Most species are ...

, a symbol of both Florence and the

House of Farnese The House of Farnese (, also , ) was an influential family in Renaissance Italy. The titles of Duke of Parma and Piacenza, Duke of Latera and Duke of Castro were held by various members of the family. Its most important members included Po ...

. The opera ends with the Dance of the Breezes.

Recordings

La Flora - Clarissa Reali, Valeria La Grotta, Mauro Borgioni, Marta Fumagalli, Arianna Stornello, Allabastrina, Elena Sartori. 2CD Glossa 2023

References

;Notes ;Sources *Cascetta, Annamaria and Carpani, Roberta (1995)
''La scena della gloria: drammaturgia e spettacolo a Milano in età spagnola''
Vita e Pensiero. *Cuppone, Roberto (2010). "Costantini, Domenica" in Giovanna Sparacello (ed.
''Notizie istoriche de' comici italiani''
IRPMF (Institut de recherche sur le patrimoine musical en France) *Daye, Anne (2007). "At the Queen's Command: Henrietta Maria and the Development of the English Masque " in Lynn Matluck Brooks (ed.
''Women's Work: Making Dance in Europe before 1800''
pp. 71–98. University of Wisconsin Press. * Gagliano, Marco da and Court, Suzanne (2011)
''La Flora''
Volume 171 of ''Recent researches in the music of the Baroque Era'' (edited, annotated and translated by Suzanne Court). A-R Editions. *Hammond, Frederick (1978). "Girolamo Frescobaldi in Florence: 1628-1634 " in Sergio Bertelli and Gloria Ramakus (eds.) ''Essays presented to Myron P. Gilmore'', Vol. 2, pp. 405–419. La Nuova Italia *Harness, Kelley Ann (2002). "Chaste Warriors and Virgin Martyrs in Florentine Musical Spectacle" in Todd Michaël Borgerding (ed.
''Gender, Sexuality, and Early Music''
Routledge. *Harness, Kelley Ann (2006)
''Echoes of Women's Voices: Music, Art, and Female Patronage in Early Modern Florence''
pp. 73–122. University of Chicago Press. *MacClintock, Carol (1979)
''Readings in the History of Music in Performance''
Indiana University Press. * Steane, J. B. (1993). ''The Grand Tradition: Seventy Years of Singing on Record'' 2nd edition. Amadeus Press. * Vittori, Loreto and Dunn, Thomas D. (2002)
''La Galatea''
Volume 119 of ''Recent researches in the music of the Baroque Era'' (edited and annotated by Thomas D. Dunn). A-R Editions.

External links

Score for "Io era pargoletta", Corilla's Act 3 aria
in piano/voice transcription by

Luigi Torchi Luigi Torchi was an Italian inventor. He invented the first direct multiplication machine in 1834.
History ...

(1858-1920) on the

International Music Score Library Project The International Music Score Library Project (IMSLP), also known as the Petrucci Music Library after publisher Ottaviano Petrucci, is a subscription-based digital library of public-domain music scores. The project uses MediaWiki software, and ...

Libretto
in Italian on librettidopera.it
Original pages from the libretto published in Florence, 1628
(with illustrations by

) on the

British Library The British Library is the national library of the United Kingdom. Based in London, it is one of the largest libraries in the world, with an estimated collection of between 170 and 200 million items from multiple countries. As a legal deposit li ...

website
Ovid's ''Fasti''
in

James George Frazer Sir James George Frazer (; 1 January 1854 – 7 May 1941) was a Scottish social anthropologist and folkloristJosephson-Storm (2017), Chapter 5. influential in the early stages of the modern studies of mythology and comparative religion. ...

's 1931 English translation on

archive.org The Internet Archive is an American non-profit organization founded in 1996 by Brewster Kahle that runs a digital library website, archive.org. It provides free access to collections of digitized media including websites, software applic ...

{{DEFAULTSORT:Flora, o vero Il natal de' fiori, La Operas by Marco da Gagliano Operas by Jacopo Peri Italian-language operas 1628 operas Operas Operas based on classical mythology Works based on Fasti (poem) Operas based on works by Ovid Flora (mythology) Greek and Roman deities in fiction Anemoi Mercury (mythology) Cybele Venus (mythology) Cupid Pan (god) Triton (mythology) Hades Neptune (mythology) Jupiter (god) Apollo