enzymology An enzyme () is a protein that acts as a biological catalyst by accelerating chemical reactions. The molecules upon which enzymes may act are called substrate (chemistry), substrates, and the enzyme converts the substrates into different mol ...

, a kynurenine 3-monooxygenase () is an

enzyme An enzyme () is a protein that acts as a biological catalyst by accelerating chemical reactions. The molecules upon which enzymes may act are called substrate (chemistry), substrates, and the enzyme converts the substrates into different mol ...

that

catalyzes Catalysis () is the increase in rate of a chemical reaction due to an added substance known as a catalyst (). Catalysts are not consumed by the reaction and remain unchanged after it. If the reaction is rapid and the catalyst recycles quick ...

the

chemical reaction A chemical reaction is a process that leads to the chemistry, chemical transformation of one set of chemical substances to another. When chemical reactions occur, the atoms are rearranged and the reaction is accompanied by an Gibbs free energy, ...

: -kynurenine +

NADPH Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate, abbreviated NADP or, in older notation, TPN (triphosphopyridine nucleotide), is a cofactor used in anabolic reactions, such as the Calvin cycle and lipid and nucleic acid syntheses, which require N ...

+ H⁺ + O₂ 3-hydroxy--kynurenine + NADP⁺ + H₂O Kynurenine 3-monooxygenase is the expression product of the KMO (gene). The

systematic name A systematic name is a name given in a systematic way to one unique group, organism, object or chemical substance, out of a specific population or collection. Systematic names are usually part of a nomenclature. A semisystematic name or semitrivi ...

of this enzyme class is -kynurenine, NADPH:oxygen oxidoreductase (3-hydroxylating). Other names in common use include kynurenine 3-hydroxylase, kynurenine hydroxylase, and -kynurenine-3-hydroxylase. It participates in

tryptophan metabolism Tryptophan (symbol Trp or W) is an α-amino acid that is used in the biosynthesis of proteins. Tryptophan contains an α-amino group, an α-carboxylic acid group, and a side chain indole, making it a polar molecule with a non-polar aromatic ...

through the kynurenine catabolic pathway. This enzyme belongs to the family of

oxidoreductase In biochemistry, an oxidoreductase is an enzyme that catalyzes the transfer of electrons from one molecule, the reductant, also called the electron donor, to another, the oxidant, also called the electron acceptor. This group of enzymes usually ut ...

s, to be specific, those acting on paired donors, with O₂ as the oxidant. Kynurenine 3-monooxygenase catalyzes the insertion of molecular oxygen into the aromatic ring of kynurenine to produce 3-hydroxy--kynurenine. It employs one cofactor,

FAD A fad, trend, or craze is any form of collective behavior that develops within a culture, a generation, or social group in which a group of people enthusiastically follow an impulse for a short time period. Fads are objects or behaviors tha ...

. Kynurenine 3-monooxygenase serves as an important branch point in the kynurenine pathway and, as a result, is an attractive drug target for

immunological Immunology is a branch of biology and medicine that covers the study of immune systems in all organisms. Immunology charts, measures, and contextualizes the physiological functioning of the immune system in states of both health and disease ...

neurodegenerative A neurodegenerative disease is caused by the progressive loss of neurons, in the process known as neurodegeneration. Neuronal damage may also ultimately result in their death. Neurodegenerative diseases include amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, mul ...

, and neuroinflammatory diseases. Currently, most research on the kynurenine 3-monooxygenase enzyme has been focused primarily on

rat Rats are various medium-sized, long-tailed rodents. Species of rats are found throughout the order Rodentia, but stereotypical rats are found in the genus ''Rattus''. Other rat genera include '' Neotoma'' (pack rats), '' Bandicota'' (bandicoo ...

models and in

yeast Yeasts are eukaryotic, single-celled microorganisms classified as members of the fungus kingdom (biology), kingdom. The first yeast originated hundreds of millions of years ago, and at least 1,500 species are currently recognized. They are est ...

, both of which have been demonstrated to have high sequence homology with the human kynurenine 3-monooxygenase protein. Studies have shown the beneficial effects of enzyme inhibition in these eukaryotic kynurenine 3-monooxygenase active sites, thus making this enzyme an attractive target for human drug design.

Structure

Kynurenine 3-monooxygenase is a

dimer Dimer may refer to: * Dimer (chemistry), a chemical structure formed from two similar sub-units ** Protein dimer, a protein quaternary structure ** d-dimer ** TH-dimer * Dimer model, an item in statistical mechanics, based on ''domino tiling'' * ...

containing asymmetric subunits and has one FAD-binding domain as its prosthetic group. Kynurenine 3-monooxygenase contains a linker region involved in substrate binding following a second strand of an antiparallel

β-sheet The beta sheet (β-sheet, also β-pleated sheet) is a common structural motif, motif of the regular protein secondary structure. Beta sheets consist of beta strands (β-strands) connected laterally by at least two or three backbone chain, backbon ...

, a six-stranded antiparallel β-sheet domain, and an

α-helix An alpha helix (or α-helix) is a sequence of amino acids in a protein that are twisted into a coil (a helix). The alpha helix is the most common structural arrangement in the Protein secondary structure, secondary structure of proteins. It is al ...

at the carboxy-terminal. The

hydrophobic In chemistry, hydrophobicity is the chemical property of a molecule (called a hydrophobe) that is seemingly repelled from a mass of water. In contrast, hydrophiles are attracted to water. Hydrophobic molecules tend to be nonpolar and, thu ...

C-terminus acts as the mitochondrial anchoring domain and participates in enzymatic activity.

Active site

While no scientific literature reports a crystal image of a kynurenine 3-monooxygenase complex with -kynurenine, structural studies of the enzyme in yeast co-crystallized with UPF 648 reveal how the FAD cofactor and substrate are bound in the active site. Chemical similarities between UPF 648 and -kynurenine suggest that the substrate binds adjacent to the ''Re''-face of the flavoprotein. A loop containing the residues Pro₃₂₁–Gln₃₂₅ is believed to be the oxygen-binding site above the re-side of the FAD prosthetic group. Each monomer contains a conserved hydrophobic pocket (residues Leu₂₂₁, Met₂₃₀, Ile₂₃₂, Leu₂₃₄, Phe₂₄₆, Pro₃₂₁, Phe₃₂₂) positioned around the substrate's aromatic benzene moiety. A conserved Gln₃₂₅ polar residue is also involved in hydrogen bonding on the -kynurenine carbonyl group, as well as on the hydrogen on the FAD N3 atom. Arg₈₃ and Tyr₉₇ also form polar contacts with the carboxylate in the amino acid moiety on the substrate.

Mechanism

Kynurenine-3-monooxygenase catalyzes the

hydroxylation In chemistry, hydroxylation refers to the installation of a hydroxyl group () into an organic compound. Hydroxylations generate alcohols and phenols, which are very common functional groups. Hydroxylation confers some degree of water-solubility ...

of -kynurenine to 3-hydroxy--kynurenine with concomitant interconversion of NADPH to NADP⁺. The reaction mechanism is not entirely known, but is believed to follow mechanisms related to the flavin-dependent monooxygenases. After -kynurenine binds, NADPH reduces FAD and leaves as NADP⁺. Oxygen then binds and creates an -kynurenine-FAD-hydroperoxide intermediate. This intermediate is the electrophilic source for the hydroxylation reaction, yielding a primary

ketimine In organic chemistry, an imine ( or ) is a functional group or organic compound containing a carbon–nitrogen double bond (). The nitrogen atom can be attached to a hydrogen or an organic group (R). The carbon atom has two additional single bon ...

form of the product and the C4a-hydroxy-FAD. Tautomerization yields 3-hydroxy--kynurenine in complex with the enzyme (E Fl HOH-P). Dissociation of 3-hydroxy--kynurenine and H₂O leads to the free enzyme (E Fl_ox).

Biological function

Kynurenine 3-monooxygenase catalyzes the conversion of -kynurenine to 3-hydroxy--kynurenine, an important bioactive metabolite in the

kynurenine pathway 400px, The kynurenine pathway The kynurenine pathway is a metabolic pathway leading to the production of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+). Metabolites involved in the kynurenine pathway include tryptophan, kynurenine, kynurenic acid, xa ...

. The kynurenine pathway is responsible for over 95% of

tryptophan Tryptophan (symbol Trp or W) is an α-amino acid that is used in the biosynthesis of proteins. Tryptophan contains an α-amino group, an α-carboxylic acid group, and a side chain indole, making it a polar molecule with a non-polar aromat ...

oxidative degradation. -Kynurenine is an important branch point of this metabolic pathway, being converted into the

neurotoxin Neurotoxins are toxins that are destructive to nervous tissue, nerve tissue (causing neurotoxicity). Neurotoxins are an extensive class of exogenous chemical neurological insult (medical), insultsSpencer 2000 that can adversely affect function ...

3-hydroxy--kynurenine via kynurenine 3-monooxygenase, the neuroprotectant

kynurenic acid Kynurenic acid (KYNA or KYN) is a product of the normal metabolism of amino acid -tryptophan. It has been shown that kynurenic acid possesses neuroactive activity. It acts as an antiexcitotoxic and anticonvulsant, most likely through acting as an ...

through kynurenine amino transferases, or

anthranilic acid Anthranilic acid is an aromatic acid with the formula C6H4(NH2)(CO2H) and has a sweetish taste. The molecule consists of a benzene ring, ''ortho''-substituted with a carboxylic acid and an amine. As a result of containing both acidic and basic f ...

kynureninase Kynureninase or L-Kynurenine hydrolase (KYNU) () is a PLP dependent enzyme that catalyses the cleavage of kynurenine (Kyn) into anthranilic acid (Ant). It can also act on 3-hydroxykynurenine (to produce 3-hydroxyanthranilate) and some other (3 ...

. Kynurenine 3-monooxygenase regulates the downstream production of quinolinic acid, which can generate reactive free radicals and activates the

NMDA ''N''-methyl--aspartic acid, or ''N''-methyl--aspartate (NMDA), is an amino acid derivative that acts as a specific agonist at the NMDA receptor mimicking the action of glutamate, the neurotransmitter which normally acts at that receptor. Unl ...

subtype of glutamate receptors, producing excitotoxic lesions in the central nervous system of mammals. Quinolinic acid is also the bioprecursor of NAD⁺. Inhibition of kynurenine 3-monooxygenase leads to an increase of kynurenic acid in the kynurenine pathway. This metabolite functions as an

antagonist An antagonist is a character in a story who is presented as the main enemy or rival of the protagonist and is often depicted as a villain.α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor and as an

antagonist An antagonist is a character in a story who is presented as the main enemy or rival of the protagonist and is often depicted as a villain.Huntington's Huntington's disease (HD), also known as Huntington's chorea, is an incurable neurodegenerative disease that is mostly inherited. It typically presents as a triad of progressive psychiatric, cognitive, and motor symptoms. The earliest sympto ...

Alzheimer's Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disease and the cause of 60–70% of cases of dementia. The most common early symptom is difficulty in remembering recent events. As the disease advances, symptoms can include problems wit ...

, and

Parkinson's disease Parkinson's disease (PD), or simply Parkinson's, is a neurodegenerative disease primarily of the central nervous system, affecting both motor system, motor and non-motor systems. Symptoms typically develop gradually and non-motor issues become ...

. Administration of potent enzyme inhibitors has demonstrated promising pharmacological results. Specifically, genetic elimination of the kynurenine 3-monooxygenase enzyme has been shown to suppress toxicity of the

huntingtin Huntingtin (Htt) is the protein coded for in humans by the ''HTT'' gene, also known as the ''IT15'' ("interesting transcript 15") gene. Mutation, Mutated ''HTT'' is the cause of Huntington's disease (HD), and has been investigated for this role an ...

protein in yeast and ''

Drosophila ''Drosophila'' (), from Ancient Greek δρόσος (''drósos''), meaning "dew", and φίλος (''phílos''), meaning "loving", is a genus of fly, belonging to the family Drosophilidae, whose members are often called "small fruit flies" or p ...

'' models of Huntington's disease. Kynurenine 3-monooxygenase deficiency, which can be caused by genetic polymorphisms,

cytokines Cytokines () are a broad and loose category of small proteins (~5–25 kDa) important in cell signaling. Cytokines are produced by a broad range of cells, including immune cells like macrophages, B cell, B lymphocytes, T cell, T lymphocytes ...

, or both, leads to an accumulation of

kynurenine -Kynurenine is a metabolite of the amino acid -tryptophan used in the production of niacin. Kynurenine is synthesized by the enzyme tryptophan dioxygenase, which is made primarily but not exclusively in the liver, and indoleamine 2,3-dioxygena ...

and to a shift within the tryptophan

metabolic pathway In biochemistry, a metabolic pathway is a linked series of chemical reactions occurring within a cell (biology), cell. The reactants, products, and Metabolic intermediate, intermediates of an enzymatic reaction are known as metabolites, which are ...

towards kynurenic acid and

. Recent research suggests that hyperphysiologic concentrations of

in kynurenine 3-monooxygenase-deficient patients results in a shift towards kynurenic acid production, believed to be related to cognitive deficits in predictive pursuit and visuospatial working memory. Kynurenine-3-monooxygenase deficiency is associated with disorders of the brain (e.g.

schizophrenia Schizophrenia () is a mental disorder characterized variously by hallucinations (typically, Auditory hallucination#Schizophrenia, hearing voices), delusions, thought disorder, disorganized thinking and behavior, and Reduced affect display, f ...

tic disorders Tic disorders are defined in the ''Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders'' (DSM) based on type (motor or phonic) and duration of tics (sudden, rapid, nonrhythmic movements). Tic disorders are defined similarly by the World Health O ...

) and of the liver.

References

* * * {{Portal bar, Biology, border=no EC 1.14.13 NADPH-dependent enzymes Flavoproteins Enzymes of known structure