Kyansittha (, ; also spelt as Kyanzittha or Hti-Hlaing Min; 21 July 1030 – 1112/13) was king of the Pagan dynasty of

Burma Myanmar, officially the Republic of the Union of Myanmar; and also referred to as Burma (the official English name until 1989), is a country in northwest Southeast Asia. It is the largest country by area in Mainland Southeast Asia and ha ...

(Myanmar) from 1084 to 1112/13, and is considered one of the greatest Burmese monarchs. He continued the social, economic and cultural reforms begun by his father, King

Anawrahta Anawrahta Minsaw (, ; 11 May 1014 – 11 April 1077) was the founder of the Pagan Empire. Considered the father of the Burmese nation, Anawrahta turned a small principality in the dry zone of Upper Burma into the first Burmese Empire that ...

. Pagan became an internationally recognized power during his 28-year reign. The

Burmese language Burmese (; ) is a Tibeto-Burman languages, Tibeto-Burman language spoken in Myanmar, where it is the official language, lingua franca, and the native language of the Bamar people, Bamar, the country's largest ethnic group. Burmese dialects are a ...

and

culture Culture ( ) is a concept that encompasses the social behavior, institutions, and Social norm, norms found in human societies, as well as the knowledge, beliefs, arts, laws, Social norm, customs, capabilities, Attitude (psychology), attitudes ...

continued to gain ground. In his early life, Kyansittha was a popular and successful general who led Anawrahta's major military campaigns that founded the Pagan Empire. He was exiled twice in the 1070s and 1080s for his affair with Queen Manisanda. Kyansittha ascended to the Pagan throne in 1084 after suppressing a major Mon rebellion that killed King Saw Lu.Coedès 1968: 155–157 His reign was largely peaceful. A great admirer of Mon culture, he pursued a conciliatory policy towards the Mon of the south, and continued the patronage of

Mon language The Mon language, formerly known as Peguan and Talaing, is an Austroasiatic language spoken by the Mon people. Mon, like the related Khmer language, but unlike most languages in mainland Southeast Asia, is not tonal. The Mon language is a recogn ...

and culture at his court. It was in his reign that the synthesis of Burman, Mon, Pyu and Buddhist practices into a Burmese cultural tradition began to reach a level of maturity. The

Burmese script Burmese may refer to: * Something of, from, or related to Myanmar, a country in Southeast Asia * Burmese people * Burmese language * Burmese alphabet * Burmese cuisine * Burmese culture Animals * Burmese cat * Burmese chicken * Burmese (horse) ...

began to be used alongside Pyu, Mon, and

Pali Pāli (, IAST: pāl̤i) is a Classical languages of India, classical Middle Indo-Aryan languages, Middle Indo-Aryan language of the Indian subcontinent. It is widely studied because it is the language of the Buddhist ''Pali Canon, Pāli Can ...

. A peaceful Pagan grew wealthy from agriculture and trade, and large scale temple building began in earnest. Kyansittha completed Anawrahta's Shwezigon Pagoda and built his crowning achievement, the Ananda Temple. Pagan became a major center of Buddhist learning.

Theravada Buddhism ''Theravāda'' (; 'School of the Elders'; ) is Buddhism's oldest existing school. The school's adherents, termed ''Theravādins'' ( anglicized from Pali ''theravādī''), have preserved their version of the Buddha's teaching or '' Dhamma'' in ...

continued to gain ground although many Ari,

Mahayana Mahāyāna ( ; , , ; ) is a term for a broad group of Buddhist traditions, Buddhist texts#Mahāyāna texts, texts, Buddhist philosophy, philosophies, and practices developed in ancient India ( onwards). It is considered one of the three main ex ...

and Brahminical practices continued to pervade. Pagan emerged a major power alongside the

Khmer Empire The Khmer Empire was an empire in Southeast Asia, centered on Hydraulic empire, hydraulic cities in what is now northern Cambodia. Known as Kambuja (; ) by its inhabitants, it grew out of the former civilization of Chenla and lasted from 802 t ...

Southeast Asia Southeast Asia is the geographical United Nations geoscheme for Asia#South-eastern Asia, southeastern region of Asia, consisting of the regions that are situated south of China, east of the Indian subcontinent, and northwest of the Mainland Au ...

, recognized as a sovereign kingdom by the Chinese

Song dynasty The Song dynasty ( ) was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 960 to 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song, who usurped the throne of the Later Zhou dynasty and went on to conquer the rest of the Fiv ...

, and Indian

Chola dynasty The Chola dynasty () was a Tamil dynasty originating from Southern India. At its height, it ruled over the Chola Empire, an expansive maritime empire. The earliest datable references to the Chola are from inscriptions dated to the 3rd cen ...

. Kyansittha is one of the most famous monarchs in Burmese history. His life stories and exploits are still retold in

Burmese literature The literature of Myanmar () spans over a millennium. The Burmese language, unlike other Southeast Asian languages (e.g. Thai, Khmer), adopted words primarily from Pāli rather than from Sanskrit. In addition, Burmese literature tends to re ...

theater Theatre or theater is a collaborative form of performing art that uses live performers, usually actors to present experiences of a real or imagined event before a live audience in a specific place, often a stage. The performers may communi ...

, and cinema.

Early life

Much of Kyansittha's early life, like much of early Pagan history, is shrouded in legend. Many of the stories given in the

Burmese chronicles The royal chronicles of Myanmar ( ; also known as Burmese chronicles) are detailed and continuous chronicles of the Burmese monarchy, monarchy of Myanmar (Burma). The chronicles were written on different media such as parabaik paper, palm-leaf ...

attributed to Kyansittha are legends, with a heavy touch of literary flourish.

Parentage

According to the chronicles, Kyansittha was born to Princess

Pyinsa Kalayani Pyinsa Kalayani ( ; ) was the first wife of King Anawratha and the mother of King Kyansittha of Pagan Dynasty of Burma (Myanmar). The Burmese chronicles give many inconsistent stories about her, her son and her brief husband Anawrahta. Most ...

of Wethali and

, then a senior prince at the court of King Sokkate. He grew up away from Anawrahta's court after Anawrahta banished his mother who was pregnant with him to the countryside because Anawrahta was led to believe that she was not of royal blood. The chronicles also speculate that Kyansittha's real father might not be Anawrahta but Yazataman, the Pagan official who guarded Pyinsa Kalayani during her journey to Pagan.Harvey 1925: 23–24 Nonetheless, the chronicles accept that he was a ''legal'' son of Anawrahta per Burmese customary law, which says a child born in wedlock is presumed to have been begotten by the husband.Htin Aung 1970: 32 At any rate, a stone inscription at the Hledauk Pagoda in Taungbyon says that it was donated by Kyansittha, son of Anawrahta.Hmannan Vol. 1 2003: xxvii–xxviii, in the 1963 preface by Hsan Tun

Birth date

The chronicles do not agree on the dates regarding his life and reign. The table below lists the dates given by the four main chronicles.Maha Yazawin Vol. 1 2006: 348 Moreover, according to ''Zata'', considered the most accurate chronicle for the dates of the best-known Pagan and Ava kings,Aung-Thwin 2005: 121–123 Kyansittha was born on 21 July 1030, and was about 19 years older than Saw Lu. ''Maha Yazawin'' says Kyansittha was about four years older but the two later chronicles ''Yazawin Thit'' and ''Hmannan'' say Kyansittha was about a year younger than Lu. If ''Hmannan'' is correct about Kyansittha's age at death, Kyansittha was born in 1041.(Hmannan Vol. 1 2003: 286) says he came to power at age 43 (in his 44th year). Since Kyansittha came to power in 446 ME (1084/1085 CE) per Myazedi Inscription and ''Zata'', it means he was born in 403 ME (1041/1042 CE).

Inconsistent chronicle narratives

Furthermore, the chronicle narratives are filled with many inconsistencies. The chronicles claim that Anawrahta was already king when Pyinsa Kalayani was sent. But Anawrahta did not become king until 1044. Kyansittha had been born at least since 1030. Moreover, it was unlikely that the ruler of Wethali would have sent his daughter to Anawrahta who until 1044 was a prince but not to Sokkate, the king himself. The chronicles also claim that ''King'' Anawrahta tried to kill off all babies in the year that Kyansittha was born because his astrologers predicted that a new born would be king. Again, Anawrahta was not the king.

The meaning of the name Kyansittha

Kyansittha's birth name is lost to history. According to the Shwezigon Pagoda inscriptions dedicated by Kyansittha himself, the name Kyansittha is a title given by Anawrahta. The king gave him the title Kyansittha which means "the remaining/last standing soldier" because of the latter's knack for surviving in the battlefield.Hmannan Vol. 1 2003: 233 But according to historian George Coedes, it is a corruption of the Pali word, ''kalan cacsa'', meaning "soldier-official".''Cœdès 1966: 114

Military career (1057–1070s)

Kyansittha grew up in relative obscurity until Anawrahta recalled his son at a later point (likely by his early teens). At Anawrahta's court, he was a minor prince under the shadow of his elder half-brother Saw Lu, and served as a royal cadet in the Pagan army. Anawrahta soon recognized the ability of his son. According to tradition, in early 1057, the king made his teenage son one of four lead commanders in his invasion of Thaton Kingdom. (Anawrahta's appointment of Kyansittha as commander at such an early age indicates that Anawrahta considered Kyansittha his offspring. During the Burmese imperial era, only the royalty were allowed to assume a senior position in the army at an early age. Commoners, who had to earn that privilege over years of service, were never that young.) Pagan's forces captured Thaton after a 3-months' siege in May 1057. Kyansittha became famous as one of the Four Paladins.Harvey 1925: 27Htin Aung 1967: 33 More recent research by historian Michael Aung-Thwin accepts Anawrahta's conquest of Lower Burma but argues that the chronicle narrative of the conquest of Thaton is a post-Pagan legend.Aung-Thwin 2005: 104–118 Anawrahta went on found the Pagan Empire (also known as the First Burmese Empire) expanding his authority in all directions: northern Arakan in the west, Shan Hills in the north and east, and Tenasserim in the south. Kyansittha partook in all of Anawrahta's expeditions including one to the

Nanzhao Kingdom Nanzhao ( zh, t=南詔, s=南诏, p=Nánzhào), also spelled Nanchao, , Yi language: ꂷꏂꌅ, ''Mashynzy'') was a dynastic kingdom that flourished in what is now southwestern China and northern Southeast Asia during the 8th and 9th centuries ...

, and in some cases (such as the Tenasserim campaign against the

) led them. Soon after the Thaton conquest, Kyansittha along with his three other "Paladins" were sent to take control of Tenasserim. The Four Paladins defeated the Khmer army, and Tenasserim became part of Pagan Empire from then on. In the early 1070s, Kyansittha was called into service to defend

Pegu Bago (formerly spelled Pegu; , ), formerly known as Hanthawaddy, is a city and the capital of the Bago Region in Myanmar. It is located north-east of Yangon. Etymology The Burmese name Bago (ပဲခူး) is likely derived from the Mon lang ...

(Bago) against the raiders from the direction of

Chiang Mai Chiang Mai, sometimes written as Chiengmai or Chiangmai, is the largest city in northern Thailand, the capital of Chiang Mai province and the List of municipalities in Thailand#Largest cities by urban population, second largest city in Thailan ...

. The Pagan army easily drove out the raiders. The ruler of Pegu, whom Anawrahta had allowed to remain as viceroy for his cooperation in the 1057 conquest of Thaton, sent his young daughter, the lady Khin U, jewels and hair relics as presents for Anawrahta. On the journey to Pagan, Khin U was borne in a curtained litter, and Kyansittha rode at her side. During the long journey, they fell in love with each other so violently that the matter had to be reported to Anawrahta. It was the end of Kyansittha's career. He was sent into exile by the king.Harvey 1925: 31–32 :''The Burmese chronicles report his exile with a touch of literary flourish. Kyansittha was brought bound into the presence, and Anawrahta taunted him for a time until with his anger rising, he hurled his fairy spear Areindama. But Kyansittha's hour had not yet come. The spear missed, grazing his skin and severing the ropes that bound him. He picked up the famous spear and fled never to return. His flight over hill and dale still forms a favorite subject of Burmese theater.''

Exile years (1070s–1082)

Kyansittha fled west, and at a time, he earned a living by tending horses. He finally settled at Kaungbyu (likely in the

Sagaing District Sagaing District is the southernmost administrative district in Sagaing Region, northern Myanmar.Thanbula, niece of the head abbot of the local monastery. He was in his early 30s. He lived there for the remainder of Anawrahta's reign until 1077. In April 1077, Anawrahta died, and his son Lu succeeded. Lu, who had always viewed Kyansittha as a rival, reluctantly recalled Kyansittha to Pagan, at the urging of Shin Arahan,

primate Primates is an order (biology), order of mammals, which is further divided into the Strepsirrhini, strepsirrhines, which include lemurs, galagos, and Lorisidae, lorisids; and the Haplorhini, haplorhines, which include Tarsiiformes, tarsiers a ...

of Pagan, to help administer the kingdom. Kyansittha left a pregnant Thanbula at Kaungbyu. At Pagan, he soon renewed his affair with Khin U (now with the title of Manisanda), who was now a queen of Lu. Kyansittha was promptly exiled again, this time much farther away to Dala (modern-day Yangon).Harvey 1925: 34

Pegu rebellion (1082–1084)

In 1082, Saw Lu faced a serious rebellion by his childhood friend Yamankan, whom he had appointed governor of Pegu. The king recalled Kyansittha to put down the rebellion. At a battle near Magwe, Lu was captured in November 1082 (Natdaw 444 ME).(Zata 1960: 83): 9th month (Natdaw) of 444 ME = 23 October 1082 to 20 November 1082. Ministers offered Kyansittha the crown. But he refused. Instead he personally tried to rescue Lu by breaking into the enemy camp at night. Seated on Kyansittha's shoulders and well on the way to safety, Lu thought Kyansittha was kidnapping him to kill him. After all, he had never treated Kyansittha well, and could not believe that Kyansittha would risk his life to rescue someone who had treated him badly. Yamankan on the other hand was his childhood friend, and son of his wet nurse. :Lu had yelled out, "Kyansittha is stealing me!" :Kyansittha exclaiming, "Then die, thou fool; die the death of a dog at the hands of these scum", flung him down, and ran for his life. He swam across the Irrawaddy, and eventually made back to safety. Yamankan promptly executed Lu, and marched to Pagan. Unable to blockade the fortified walls of Pagan, his army drifted north to near the present-day Ava (Inwa). Kyansittha went to the Kyaukse region, the breadbasket of Pagan, to raise an army. He received allegiance from the chief of Htihlaing, who helped him raise men. With his army, Kyansittha drove Yamankan out. Yamankan's army fled south while Yamankan fled on a barge full of gold and gems he had looted down the Irrawaddy. Kyansittha and his army followed up on the retreating Peguan forces. Midway to the Pegu country, Kyansittha's advance forces caught up with Yamankan near

Myingyan Myingyan (, ) is a city and district in the Mandalay Division of central Myanmar, previously, it was a district in the Meiktila Division of Upper Burma. It is currently the capital of Myingyan Township and lies along the National Highway 2. ...

. Yamankan, who was blind in one eye, was killed by an arrow through his remaining good eye.Harvey 1925: 37 According to the chronicle ''Zatadawbon Yazawin'', Kyansittha and Yamankan fought a battle c. April 1083 (Kason of 445 ME).(Zata 1960: 84): The battle took place in Kason 445 ME ( 21 March 1083 to 19 April 1083). But since the new year's day of 445 ME fell on 26 March 1083 (6th waxing of Kason 445), Kason 445 only began on 6th waxing of Kason. Thus, the battle took place between 26 March and 19 April 1083. The battle may not be the final battle in which Yamankan was slain since ''Zatadawbon'' says Saw Lu died in 1084 after having reigned seven years. However, other chronicles (''Hmannan'' and ''Yazawin Thit'') say he reigned only for five years, followed by an interregnum that lasted till 1084—implying that Saw Lu died in late 1082 or early 1083. At any rate, Kyansittha came to power in 1084, per the Myazedi inscription.

Accession

At Pagan, Kyansittha was once proclaimed king on 21 April 1084.(Yazawin Thit Vol. 1 2012: 111, footnote 2): Full moon of 446 ME = 21 aPRIL 1084 The coronation ceremony may have been two years later, in 1086.Than Tun 1964: 122 He ascended to the throne with the title Śrī Tribhuvanāditya Dhammarāja (ဂြီတြိဘုဝနာဒိတျဓမ္မရာဇ).Taw, Blagden 1911: 216 The title's meaning is "Fortunate Buddhist King, Sun of the Three Worlds".Htin Aung 1967: 44 He was joined by his three queens: * Apeyadana, his first wife, with whom he had a daughter Shwe Einsi * Khin Tan, daughter of chief of Htihlaing * Manisanda, the lady Khin U for whom he had endured exile twice His wife from his first exile Thanbula was not present. She would later come and see him with their son Yazakumar later.

Reign

Rule of Pagan Empire

Kyansittha strengthened the foundations of Pagan Empire which Anawrahta had built. Although he suppressed the Mon rebellion, he pursued a conciliatory policy towards the Mon. Having spent seven years in the Mon country in exile, the king had a genuine respect for the Mon culture, and kept Mon scholars at his court. The language of most of his epigraphs is Mon (likely because the

was still coming into its own). The Mon language was widely used among the ruling elite, and the Pyu language continued to be a cultural force as well.Tarling 1999: 166 His policy proved effective. The rest of his reign saw no more rebellions in the south. Elsewhere too was largely peaceful. (He did send an expedition to northern Arakan because the tributary kingdom in the west had come under attack by the lord of southern Arakan. His troops repelled the attack but could not catch the lord.)Harvey 1925: 38-44 Pagan's power did not go unnoticed. The Khmer Empire, the other Southeast Asian power, stopped raiding southern Pagan territory. When Pagan sent an embassy to the Chinese Song court in 1106, the Chinese met the Burmese envoys with the full rites accorded only sovereign kingdoms.

Gradual growth of Burmese language

The use of Burmese vernacular continued to gain strength among the populace although it was still junior to more established languages of Pyu and Mon. (

had already replaced

Sanskrit Sanskrit (; stem form ; nominal singular , ,) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in northwest South Asia after its predecessor languages had Trans-cultural ...

as the

liturgical language A sacred language, liturgical language or holy language is a language that is cultivated and used primarily for religious reasons (like church service) by people who speak another, primary language in their daily lives. Some religions, or part ...

since 1057.) The earliest evidence of a more settled Burmese script was the Myazedi inscription, dedicated to him in 1112 when the king was on his deathbed. The use of Pyu began to decline.Htin Aung 1967: 41 The first ever mention of the word "Myanmar" (the literary name of the Burmans (Bamar)) appeared in the epigraph of his new palace, built between December 1101 and April 1102.

Religious affairs

Kyansittha guided by Shin Arahan continued Anawrahta's policies to reform the Buddhism of Pagan, which was a mix of

Ari Buddhism Ari Buddhism or the Ari Gaing (, ) is the name given to the religious practice common in Burma prior to Anawrahta's rise and the subsequent conversion of Bagan to Theravada Buddhism in the eleventh century. It was introduced in the 7th century, p ...

Mahayana Buddhism Mahāyāna ( ; , , ; ) is a term for a broad group of Buddhist traditions, texts, philosophies, and practices developed in ancient India ( onwards). It is considered one of the three main existing branches of Buddhism, the others being Thera ...

and

Hinduism Hinduism () is an Hypernymy and hyponymy, umbrella term for a range of Indian religions, Indian List of religions and spiritual traditions#Indian religions, religious and spiritual traditions (Sampradaya, ''sampradaya''s) that are unified ...

. He gave sanctuary to Buddhists fleeing India (which had just come under Muslim rule). The king entertained eight learned Indian monks for three months, listening to their stories. Enthralled by the description of their great cave temple of Ananta in the Udayagiri hills of

Orissa Odisha (), formerly Orissa ( the official name until 2011), is a state located in Eastern India. It is the eighth-largest state by area, and the eleventh-largest by population, with over 41 million inhabitants. The state also has the thir ...

, the king commissioned the Ananda Temple in imitation. He also completed the Shwezigon Pagoda which Anawrahta began. Nonetheless, historians contend that even the reformed religion of Shin Arahan, Anawrahta, Kyansittha and other Pagan kings was one still strongly influenced by Hinduism when compared to later more orthodox (18th and 19th century) standards.Lieberman 2003: 115–116 Indeed, with the approval of primate Shin Arahan, Kyansittha believed

Vishnu Vishnu (; , , ), also known as Narayana and Hari, is one of the Hindu deities, principal deities of Hinduism. He is the supreme being within Vaishnavism, one of the major traditions within contemporary Hinduism, and the god of preservation ( ...

was his patron.

Succession

Kyansittha appointed his grandson Sithu (later Alaungsithu) as heir apparent because he thought he did not have a son. It turned out that he had forgotten the pregnant wife he left in Kaungbyu when he first recalled to Pagan in 1078. Thanbula gave birth to a boy, and did not learn of Kyansittha's ascent to the throne right away. When she finally came to the Pagan to meet Kyansittha with their son, the king did not want to go back on his word. Instead he appointed the boy the titular lord of Arakan with the title of Yazakumar (Pali: Rajakumar, lit. King's son). Alaungsithu succeeded him.

Death

Kyansittha died in either 1112 or 1113 after a long illness.Although ''Zatadawbon Yazawin'' says he died in 473 ME (March 1111 to March 1112 CE), the Myazedi Inscription, inscribed in 474 ME (March 1112 to March 1113), confirms that the king was in his deathbed but still alive at the time of inscription. (Htin Aung 1970: 41): According to

Gordon Luce Gordon Hannington Luce (20 January 1889 – 3 May 1979) was a colonial scholar in Burma. His outstanding library containing books, manuscripts, maps and photographs – The Luce Collection – was acquired by the National Library of Australia ...

, a "less reliable Early Ava inscription" says Kyansittha's successor Sithu I had been on the throne for 37 years in 1151 CE, meaning Sithu I came to power in 1114 CE. Luce takes the middle of 1112 and 1114, gives the year of death as 1113. Htin Aung is highly skeptical of the assessment since Luce has given weight to a non-contemporary inscription, which by Luce's own admission, is "less reliable" uce's quotes He was either 82 or 83.

Legacy

Kyansittha is regarded as one of the greatest Burmese monarchs for saving the nascent Pagan Empire and making it stronger. His continuation of Anawrahta's social, economic and religious policies transformed the kingdom to a major regional power. His reign is generally understood as the time when the assimilation of various cultural traditions (Mon, Pyu and Burman) began to meld into a common Burmese cultural tradition that would come to dominate the Irrawaddy valley.

In popular culture

Kyansittha is remembered as a romantic warrior king. He was popular throughout his reign and after. His life stories and exploits are still retold in

, and cinema. *In '' Mobile Legends: Bang Bang'', MOBA from Moonton, the character Minsitthar is based on Kyansittha.

Commemorations

* Team Kyansittha is one of four student teams into which all students in every Burmese primary and secondary school are organized. The other three teams are named after the greatest Burmese heroes:

Bayinnaung , title = King of Toungoo , image = Bayinnaung.JPG , caption = Statue of Bayinnaung in front of the National Museum of Myanmar , reign = 30 April 1550 – 10 October 1581 , coronation = 11 January 1551 at Taungoo, ...

Alaungpaya Alaungpaya (, ; also spelled Alaunghpaya or Alaung-Phra; 11 May 1760) was the founder and first emperor of the Konbaung dynasty of Burma. By the time of his death from illness during his Burmese–Siamese War (1759–60), campaign in Siam, this ...

and Bandula. * UMS Kyan Sittha,

Myanmar Navy The Myanmar Navy (; ) is the naval warfare branch of the Tatmadaw, the armed forces of Myanmar. With 19,000 active personnel, the navy operates more than 227 vessels. Prior to 1988, the navy was small, and its role in counterinsurgency, counte ...

Frigate

Notes

References

Bibliography

* * * * * * * * * * * * * {{Burmese monarchs Pagan dynasty Burmese generals 1030 births 1112 deaths 11th-century Burmese monarchs 12th-century Burmese monarchs