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''Khrushchevkas'' ( rus, хрущёвка, khrushchyovka, p=xrʊˈɕːɵfkə) are a type of low-cost, concrete- paneled or brick three- to five-storied
apartment building An apartment (American English, Canadian English), flat (British English, Indian English, South African English), tenement ( Scots English), or unit (Australian English) is a self-contained housing unit (a type of residential real estate) ...
s (and apartments in these buildings) which were designed and constructed in the
Soviet Union The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR), commonly known as the Soviet Union, was a List of former transcontinental countries#Since 1700, transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 until Dissolution of the Soviet ...
since the early 1960s (when their namesake,
Nikita Khrushchev Nikita Sergeyevich Khrushchev (– 11 September 1971) was the General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1953 to 1964 and the Premier of the Soviet Union, Chai ...
, was leader of the Soviet Union). With the beginning of the construction of "Khrushchyovkas," Soviet housing development became predominantly industrial. Compared to "
Stalinka Stalinka, Stalinist apartment buildings or Stalin era, Stalin-era buildings, are a common colloquial term for apartment buildings constructed in the USSR from 1933 in the Soviet Union, 1933 to 1961 in the Soviet Union, 1961, primarily during the ...
s", which were usually built from brick, Khrushchyovkas had smaller apartments, and their functionalist-style architecture was extremely simple. However, the first-generation buildings surpassed the typical two-story wooden apartment buildings of the Stalin era in many ways and significantly alleviated the acute housing shortage. These buildings were constructed from 1956 to the mid-1970s. In the late 1960s, "Brezhnevkas" began to replace Khrushchyovkas, but both remain among the most widespread types of housing in the
CIS countries The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) is a regional intergovernmental organization in Eurasia. It was formed following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. It covers an area of and has an estimated population of 246,200,194. ...
and a symbol of the "
Khrushchev Thaw The Khrushchev Thaw (, or simply ''ottepel'')William Taubman, Khrushchev: The Man and His Era, London: Free Press, 2004 is the period from the mid-1950s to the mid-1960s when Political repression in the Soviet Union, repression and Censorship in ...
" era. An updated high-rise version, the '' brezhnevka'', was built in the 1970s and 1980s and included many upgrades including larger apartments (particularly, larger kitchens), elevators, and garbage disposals.


History


The origins

Traditional
masonry Masonry is the craft of building a structure with brick, stone, or similar material, including mortar plastering which are often laid in, bound, and pasted together by mortar (masonry), mortar. The term ''masonry'' can also refer to the buildin ...
is labor-intensive; individual projects were slow and not scalable to the needs of overcrowded cities. In the 1920s, a Soviet delegation studied Germany's
social housing Public housing, also known as social housing, refers to Subsidized housing, subsidized or affordable housing provided in buildings that are usually owned and managed by local government, central government, nonprofit organizations or a ...
construction under
Ernst May Ernst Georg May (27 July 1886 – 11 September 1970) was a German architect and city planner. May successfully applied urban design techniques to the city of Frankfurt am Main during the Weimar Republic period, and in 1930 less successful ...
, using panels. Soviet building at the time lacked standardized sizes, clear work organization, and efficient task distribution, relying on semi-handcrafted methods that reduced cost-effectiveness. In 1936, a decree from the
Council of People's Commissars The Council of People's Commissars (CPC) (), commonly known as the ''Sovnarkom'' (), were the highest executive (government), executive authorities of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR), the Soviet Union (USSR), and the Sovi ...
and the Communist Party Central Committee, "On Improving Construction and Reducing Costs," kickstarted industrialization and standardization in Soviet building. Before the war, reinforced concrete steps and floor slabs appeared sporadically, large-block houses were built in major cities, and rapid assembly-line methods were tested on Moscow's Bolshaya Kaluzhskaya Street. However, creating full residential series wasn't a priority. Industrialization and standardization didn't yet mean simplifying facade designs. The 1940 "Openwork House" by Andrey Burov and Boris Blokhin showed that industrial construction could coexist with high-quality, varied architecture. Post-war Western cities widely adopted large-panel housing for reconstruction. In the USSR, a standardized design approach—developing typical project series with uniform architectural styles—rolled out nationwide in the late 1940s, restoring prewar housing levels with low-rise brick houses and local materials. Until the 1950s, Soviet construction featured small apartments with combined bathrooms, kitchen access through living rooms, secondary kitchen lighting, and lower ceilings. Room-by-room occupancy practices, however, kept these designs from spreading widely.


The first Soviet large-panel houses

In 1931, under engineer A.S. Vatsenko,
Kharkov Kharkiv, also known as Kharkov, is the second-largest List of cities in Ukraine, city in Ukraine.
began building a prototype panel house with thin reinforced concrete shells connected by perimeter ribs and filled with slag. In 1937,
Uralmashzavod Uralmash is a heavy machine production business of the Russian engineering corporation OMZ. Its facility is located in Yekaterinburg, Russia, and it is reported to employ around 16,500 people. The surrounding residential area where workers li ...
produced wall panel samples for an experimental house, but complex designs halted construction. Research on housing industrialization was led by Grigory Kuznetsov. In 1945, a factory near Sverdlovsk (now
Yekaterinburg Yekaterinburg (, ; ), alternatively Romanization of Russian, romanized as Ekaterinburg and formerly known as Sverdlovsk ( ; 1924–1991), is a city and the administrative centre of Sverdlovsk Oblast and the Ural Federal District, Russia. The ci ...
) built one of the USSR's first large-panel houses in Beryozovsky, designed with 3×3 m panels. These one- and two-story homes were replicated across the region until 1951. Moscow introduced experimental frame-panel houses in 1948. A four-story corridor-style building on Budyonny Avenue was completed first, featuring a metal frame with precast reinforced concrete panels and floor slabs. Later, a full block of four- and five-story houses with metal and concrete frames was built on 1st Khoroshevsky Lane, adorned with garlands under windows and elements hiding panel joints. Precast staircases were used for the first time. Architect
Mikhail Posokhin Mikhail Vasilyevich Posokhin (; 30 November 1910 - 22 January 1989) was a Soviet, Russian architect and teacher. People's Architect of the USSR (1970). Laureate of the Lenin Prize (1962), State Prize of the USSR (1980) and Stalin Prize of the seco ...
argued that new methods should enrich, not impoverish, architecture—despite on-site panel casting and joint sealing from scaffolding, these homes rose faster than brick ones. In May 1949, at Khrushchev's initiative as Ukraine's Communist Party First Secretary, large-panel housing began in Ukraine. Houses in Makeevka and
Kyiv Kyiv, also Kiev, is the capital and most populous List of cities in Ukraine, city of Ukraine. Located in the north-central part of the country, it straddles both sides of the Dnieper, Dnieper River. As of 1 January 2022, its population was 2, ...
used precast reinforced concrete frames and ceramic wall panels, showcasing diverse material use. In 1950, a team from the USSR Academy of Architecture's Construction Technology Institute and Magnitostroy built the first frameless large-panel house in Magnitogorsk's 20A quarter. This three-story building featured 300 mm thick outer panels—two 40 mm layers with ribs and foam concrete infill—joints concealed by protrusions, and flat, solid floor slabs. A 1951 "Technology-Youth" article highlighted factory-made large-panel house blocks, deeming the approach successful and spurring the design of reinforced concrete factories. In Moscow, Khrushchev, as city party secretary, drove large-panel housing development.


Preparing the reform

A week after
Stalin's funeral Joseph Stalin, second leader of the Soviet Union, died on 5 March 1953 at his Kuntsevo Dacha after suffering a stroke, at age 74. He was given a state funeral in Moscow on 9 March, with four days of national mourning declared. On the day of th ...
,
Georgy Malenkov Georgy Maximilianovich Malenkov (8 January 1902 O.S. 26 December 1901">Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates.html" ;"title="/nowiki>Old Style and New Style dates">O.S. 26 December 1901ref name=":6"> – 14 January 1988) was a Soviet politician who br ...
, at a
Supreme Soviet The Supreme Soviet () was the common name for the legislative bodies (parliaments) of the Soviet socialist republics (SSR) in the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). These soviets were modeled after the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, establ ...
meeting, urged an expansion of housing construction. On August 18, 1953, a secret USSR Central Statistical Administration report on urban housing conditions from 1940–1952 was sent to L.M. Kaganovich. In March 1954, a memo on urban communal services was submitted to Malenkov. Historian Dmitry Khmelnitsky argues these efforts signal the leadership's preparation for a major housing reform. By 1954, publications on standardized construction emerged, and media began criticizing the ornate "grand style". The
housing crisis An affordable housing crisis or housing crisis is either a widespread housing shortage in places where people want to live or a financial crisis in the housing market. Housing crises can contribute to homelessness and housing insecurity. They are ...
stemmed from ongoing
urbanization Urbanization (or urbanisation in British English) is the population shift from Rural area, rural to urban areas, the corresponding decrease in the proportion of people living in rural areas, and the ways in which societies adapt to this change. ...
, aging urban housing stock, a lag in residential construction behind industrial growth due to rapid industrialization, and war devastation. Per the statistical report, urban housing in 1952 totaled 208.2 million m², up from 167 million m² prewar, but growth lagged behind population increases. On January 1, 1953, average living space per urban resident in public housing was 5.6 m²—6.0 m² in local council homes and 5.3 m² in ministry-owned homes. Including temporary and unregistered residents, space was even scarcer. In 1952, per-person living space barely exceeded 1940 levels and matched 1950. In cities like Kuibyshev, Molotov,
Chelyabinsk Chelyabinsk; , is the administrative center and largest types of inhabited localities in Russia, city of Chelyabinsk Oblast, Russia. It is the List of cities and towns in Russia by population, seventh-largest city in Russia, with a population ...
, and
Novosibirsk Novosibirsk is the largest city and administrative centre of Novosibirsk Oblast and the Siberian Federal District in Russia. As of the 2021 Russian census, 2021 census, it had a population of 1,633,595, making it the most populous city in Siber ...
, it fell below 5 m². Khmelnitsky believes the report overstated per-person space. Unimproved
barracks Barracks are buildings used to accommodate military personnel and quasi-military personnel such as police. The English word originates from the 17th century via French and Italian from an old Spanish word 'soldier's tent', but today barracks ar ...
also made up a large share of urban housing—18 million m² in 1952, a 144% rise from 1940—while much permanent construction favored
privileged group In economics, a privileged group is one possible condition for the production of public goods. A privileged group contains at least one individual that benefits more from a public good than its production costs. Therefore, the good will be produced ...
s.


Speech by Khrushchev at the All-Union Conference of Builders

On December 7, 1954, the final day of the "Second All-Union Conference of Builders, Architects, and Workers in Construction Materials, Machinery, Design, and Research," Nikita Khrushchev, First Secretary of the
CPSU Central Committee The Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union was the highest organ of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) between Congresses. Elected by the Congress, the Central Committee emerged as the core nexus of executive ...
, took the stage and delivered a surprising speech. He criticized
Stalinist architecture Stalinist architecture (), mostly known in the former Eastern Bloc as Stalinist style or socialist classicism, is the architecture of the Soviet Union under the leadership of Joseph Stalin, between 1933 (when Boris Iofan's draft for the Palace o ...
, scolded its architects for extravagance and "excesses," and called for comprehensive construction industrialization. Khrushchev spoke with expertise, citing specifics: Stalinist high-rises lost significant space to complex structures and incurred high heating costs, while in the early 1930s, only 1% of design resources went to standardized blueprints. The speech, likely shaped by architect Georgiy Gradov's input, faced publication delays in ''
Pravda ''Pravda'' ( rus, Правда, p=ˈpravdə, a=Ru-правда.ogg, 'Truth') is a Russian broadsheet newspaper, and was the official newspaper of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, when it was one of the most in ...
'', hinting at intraparty resistance to reform. Khrushchev's 1954 address was both a domestic move toward
de-Stalinization De-Stalinization () comprised a series of political reforms in the Soviet Union after Death and state funeral of Joseph Stalin, the death of long-time leader Joseph Stalin in 1953, and Khrushchev Thaw, the thaw brought about by ascension of Nik ...
and power consolidation and a foreign policy challenge to capitalist nations. Modern architectural studies view it as a key manifesto of
architectural modernism Modern architecture, also called modernist architecture, or the modern movement, is an architectural movement and style that was prominent in the 20th century, between the earlier Art Deco and later postmodern movements. Modern architecture wa ...
.


Housing construction reform

In the mid-1950s, discontent with the delays in construction was growing in society. Messages to the II All-Union Congress of Soviet Architects were full of complaints about crumbling housing against the backdrop of the construction of luxury millionaire hotels. On November 4, 1955, the Central Committee of the CPSU and the Council of Ministers of the USSR adopted a resolution "On the Elimination of Excesses in Design and Construction", which finally put an end to the period of Stalinist architecture. Having switched to a modernist language, Soviet architecture returned to the mainstream of world architecture. Housing construction began to be carried out almost entirely according to standard designs, with a gradually increasing share of industrially manufactured elements]. The resolution of the Central Committee of the CPSU and the Council of Ministers of the USSR "On the Development of the Production of Precast Concrete Structures and Components for Construction" issued a year earlier planned the construction of 400 precast concrete plants. Khrushchev-era buildings contrast with the monumental and heavy Stalinist architecture by the absence of fine-grained decoration and thinning, lightweight structures. "Khrushchev-era buildings" were superior in quality of construction to the multi-apartment wooden two-story buildings of typical series that were built en masse in the previous period. In theory and practice, a Utilitarianism, utilitarian approach to architecture prevailed. The problem of artistic image faded into the background and was solved by simple compositional techniques. The most important element of spatial composition was a group of buildings. The historian of Soviet architecture Selim Omarovich Khan-Magomedov recalled that the architectural community recognized the need to make houses cheaper and develop large-panel construction, but the General Secretary's intervention in matters of style caused discontent.
And it seemed that artistic image was leaving architecture altogether. Theorist Georgy Minervin came to the aid of architects. He believed that individual standard residential buildings ("boxes") could only have an artistic appearance, but when united into complexes (blocks) they could create a common, so to speak, collective, artistic image. Many people were satisfied with this at the time.
There was an idea that each individual plant should produce one type of panel, but this type was unique. But this method was abandoned, all the first generation houses were similar to each other. When asked why this happened, architect N. P. Kraynyaya answered:
We were carried away by the very novelty of the task, we believed that the reflection in architecture of the same comfort of housing for everyone was the new aesthetics.
According to the designers' recollections, the construction of "five-story buildings" was perceived as one of the symbols of the democratization of society: "construction for a person who was remembered amidst serious state affairs and concerns". Savings were achieved through the rationalization of living space and the standardization of solutions. All standards for the dimensions and area of premises were reduced. In an advertisement for new buildings, the announcer reported: to cook
borscht Borscht () is a sour soup, made with meat stock, vegetables and seasonings, common in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. In English, the word ''borscht'' is most often associated with the soup's variant of Ukrainian origin, made with red b ...
in an old apartment, you need to walk 500 steps, but in a new small kitchen of 5.6 m², everything is close by, you can literally reach anything with your hand. In turn, the small size of the apartments forced the industry to produce furniture of smaller dimensions. Thus, with standardized construction, a special aesthetic of small, compact things appeared. Standardization extended to furniture and even to people's daily routines. As a result, the costs of building "Khrushchev-era" buildings, compared to Stalin's time, were reduced by 30% or more. The urban planning thinking changed completely.
Mathematics Mathematics is a field of study that discovers and organizes methods, Mathematical theory, theories and theorems that are developed and Mathematical proof, proved for the needs of empirical sciences and mathematics itself. There are many ar ...
and
statistics Statistics (from German language, German: ', "description of a State (polity), state, a country") is the discipline that concerns the collection, organization, analysis, interpretation, and presentation of data. In applying statistics to a s ...
helped to carefully calculate the life of society in new microdistricts, determine people's needs, and calculate optimal routes to
workplace A workplace is a location where someone works, for their employer or themselves, a place of employment. Such a place can range from a home office to a large office building or factory. For industrialized societies, the workplace is one of the ...
s,
school A school is the educational institution (and, in the case of in-person learning, the Educational architecture, building) designed to provide learning environments for the teaching of students, usually under the direction of teachers. Most co ...
s, and
clinic A clinic (or outpatient clinic or ambulatory care clinic) is a health facility that is primarily focused on the care of outpatients. Clinics can be privately operated or publicly managed and funded. They typically cover the primary care needs ...
s. The
egalitarian Egalitarianism (; also equalitarianism) is a school of thought within political philosophy that builds on the concept of social equality, prioritizing it for all people. Egalitarian doctrines are generally characterized by the idea that all h ...
thinking of the Thaw era brought social meaning to construction: the closed neighborhoods built up with richly decorated Stalinist houses for the elite of society were to be replaced by an open, comfortable, universal living environment for the entire population. One of the most important provisions of the reform was the reorientation of construction from room-by-room to apartment-by-apartment settlement, which was a significant step towards improving the quality of life: more than half of urban families by this time lived in
communal apartment Communal apartments (, colloquial: ''kommunalka'') are apartments in which several unrelated persons or families live in isolated living rooms and share common areas such a kitchen, shower, and toilet. When the Bolsheviks came to power in 1917 aft ...
s and
dormitories A dormitory (originated from the Latin word ''dormitorium'', often abbreviated to dorm), also known as a hall of residence, a residence hall (often abbreviated to halls), or a hostel, is a building primarily providing sleeping and residential qu ...
. In such conditions, people had almost no personal space, and their own apartment was a dream for many. As a result of the reform, the role of urban planners and engineers increased, and the architect faded into the background. In his speech at the Third Conference on Construction in 1958, Khrushchev drew attention to the "relapses of archaism and embellishment" in the projects:
Perestroika ''Perestroika'' ( ; rus, перестройка, r=perestrojka, p=pʲɪrʲɪˈstrojkə, a=ru-perestroika.ogg, links=no) was a political reform movement within the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) during the late 1980s, widely associ ...
in architecture is not yet complete. Many people misunderstand the tasks and view it only as a reduction in architectural excesses. The point is a fundamental change in the direction of architecture, and this must be completed.
] The 20th Congress of the CPSU in 1956 set the task of putting an end to the housing deficit within 20 years. On July 31, 1957, the Central Committee of the CPSU and the Council of Ministers of the USSR adopted a resolution "On the Development of Housing construction in the USSR, Housing Construction in the USSR". It was of great importance, as it finally consolidated the new principles of construction and architecture that had been formed by that time. A year later, they were reflected in the new edition of SNiP II-B.10-58 "Residential Buildings". It was with the 1957 decree and the new edition of SNiP that the period of truly mass housing construction began throughout the USSR. It was planned to build 650-660 million m² of total area (15 million apartments) by 1965 through state construction alone.


Prototypes of mass production

To ameliorate a severe housing shortage, during 1947–1951 Soviet architects evaluated various technologies attempting to reduce costs and completion time. During January 1951, an architects' convention, supervised by Khrushchev (then the party director of
Moscow Moscow is the Capital city, capital and List of cities and towns in Russia by population, largest city of Russia, standing on the Moskva (river), Moskva River in Central Russia. It has a population estimated at over 13 million residents with ...
), declared low-cost, quick technologies the objective of Soviet architects. Two
concrete Concrete is a composite material composed of aggregate bound together with a fluid cement that cures to a solid over time. It is the second-most-used substance (after water), the most–widely used building material, and the most-manufactur ...
plants were later established in Moscow (Presnensky, 1953; Khoroshevsky, 1954). By this time, competing experimental designs were tested by real-life construction, and
prefabricated Prefabrication is the practice of assembling components of a structure in a factory or other manufacturing site, and transporting complete assemblies or sub-assemblies to the construction site where the structure is to be located. Some research ...
concrete panels were considered superior. Other possibilities, like in situ concrete, or encouraging individual low-rise construction, were discarded. During 1954–1961, engineer
Vitaly Lagutenko Vitaly Pavlovich Lagutenko (, 1904, Mogilev – 26 December 1968, Moscow) was a Soviet Union, Soviet architect and Structural engineer, engineer. His studies of low-cost prefabricated concrete construction, supported by Nikita Khrushchev, led to a ...
, chief planner of Moscow since 1956, designed and tested the mass-scale, industrialized construction process, relying on concrete panel plants and a quick assembly schedule. During 1961, Lagutenko's institute released the K-7 design of a prefabricated 5-story building that became typical of the khrushchevka. 64,000 units (3,000,000 m2 or 32,000,000 sq ft) of this type were built in Moscow from 1961 to 1968. The khrushchevkas were cheap, and sometimes an entire building could be constructed within two weeks. Poor quality construction has since become a liability, leading
Moscow Moscow is the Capital city, capital and List of cities and towns in Russia by population, largest city of Russia, standing on the Moskva (river), Moskva River in Central Russia. It has a population estimated at over 13 million residents with ...
to announce the Moscow Urban Renewal Initiative an effort to replace structures that ended their functional lives. In Moscow, space limitations forced a switch to 9 or 12-story buildings; the last 5-story khrushchevka was completed there during 1971. The rest of the USSR continued building khrushchevkas until the fall of the Soviet Union; millions of such units are now past their design lifetime.


Mass production

In July 1958, the
USSR Council of Ministers The Council of Ministers of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics ( rus, Совет министров СССР, r=Sovet Ministrov SSSR, p=sɐˈvʲet mʲɪˈnʲistrəf ˌɛsˌɛsˌɛsˈɛr), sometimes abbreviated as Sovmin or referred to as the ...
issued a decree "On the expansion of the use of standard designs in construction," which set the task of reducing the diversity of standard designs to a minimum. In 1959, the text of the seven-year plan approved precast concrete as the basis for industrial construction. Within a few years, most of the country's house-building plants (DSKs or "ДСК") were built.''Задорин Д.'
Массовое домостроение в СССР в 1950–1980-е: история в постановлениях // Массовое домостроение в России: история, критика, перспективы
:. — М., 2016.
It was impossible to completely abandon brick at this stage. Even in Moscow and Leningrad, entire microdistricts were built from brick houses of the capital series. In the rest of the country, the 1-447 series (and modifications 1-447S, adapted to SNiP II-B.10-58) became the
monopolist A monopoly (from Greek and ) is a market in which one person or company is the only supplier of a particular good or service. A monopoly is characterized by a lack of economic competition to produce a particular thing, a lack of viable s ...
of brick housing construction. In the 1960s, this was the most widespread series in Soviet housing construction. Relatively good thermal insulation, the ability to carry out redevelopment, pitched roofs of a successful design - these features made 1-447 one of the best series. But mass use was sometimes carried out without taking into account local features. This became the cause of the disaster in Neftegorsk, when as a result of an
earthquake An earthquakealso called a quake, tremor, or tembloris the shaking of the Earth's surface resulting from a sudden release of energy in the lithosphere that creates seismic waves. Earthquakes can range in intensity, from those so weak they ...
, houses that were not adapted to seismically dangerous areas crumbled. The peak of housing construction occurred in 1960. At that time, 82.8 million m² of living space was commissioned, compared to 41 million m² in 1956. Although a significant share was made up of brick houses of the 1-447 series (even in cities, the share of large-panel construction did not exceed 25% in 1963), the percentage of large-panel housing construction grew every year. The construction of a square meter of large-panel "Khrushchevkas" cost 103-110 rubles, large-block ones - 115 rubles, brick ones - 122-130 rubles. In 1963, there were about 200 DSKs in the country. But Khrushchev demanded higher indicators. Assembly teams began to compete in the speed of construction of structures. For example, in Leningrad, a house was assembled in 5 days. In search of even cheaper solutions, architects and designers proposed using unusual materials. Under the leadership of B. M. Iofan, a house was designed using plastics in enclosing structures. Large-panel technology was exported to the countries of the
Second World The Second World was one of the " Three Worlds" formed by the global political landscape of the Cold War, as it grouped together those countries that were aligned with the Eastern Bloc of the Soviet Union and allies in Warsaw Pact. This grouping ...
. With minor changes, Soviet series were built in
Vietnam Vietnam, officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam (SRV), is a country at the eastern edge of mainland Southeast Asia, with an area of about and a population of over 100 million, making it the world's List of countries and depende ...
,
China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. With population of China, a population exceeding 1.4 billion, it is the list of countries by population (United Nations), second-most populous country after ...
, and
Cuba Cuba, officially the Republic of Cuba, is an island country, comprising the island of Cuba (largest island), Isla de la Juventud, and List of islands of Cuba, 4,195 islands, islets and cays surrounding the main island. It is located where the ...
.


Usage experience

According to Soviet everyday life researcher Natalia Lebina, society at the beginning of Khrushchev's reforms experienced a state of euphoria linked to changes in spatial everyday life. Soviet art sincerely praised housing construction, but alongside admiration, criticism also emerged. In 1959, Ernst May visited the USSR—he had been involved in large-scale planning of Soviet socialist cities in the early 1930s. He described Khrushchev's construction as a massive building program driven by "revolutionary measures" but noted the hopeless monotony of new districts and the lack of attempts to enliven them, even with color. There was insufficient consideration of natural and climatic conditions, with housing series being built in unsuitable regions. In professional circles, concerns arose about the traumatic impact of modernist transformations on historical urban environments. In mass culture, the first large-scale housing series became the subject of jokes. While ''Architecture of the USSR'' magazine accompanied one exhibition with quantitative construction figures, visitors left contradictory feedback in the guestbook, complaining about difficulties in furnishing new apartments. A collective letter to the Union of Architects' congress in 1961 expressed concern that excessively small apartments would create excessive demand for more comfortable housing in the future. New residents criticized the layout, including pass-through living rooms that had to double as bedrooms, combined bathrooms, cramped entryways that made moving furniture difficult, and other issues. The projects included a limited range of apartment layouts. The living space in one-, two-, and three-room apartments varied by only 12–13 m², leading to uneven distribution of living space per person. The needs of large families and single individuals were not considered. Corridor-type dormitory buildings with shared kitchens existed but were rarely built.


Transition to the second generation of housing

In 1962, at a Moscow City Council meeting, Khrushchev reviewed development plans for the city for the coming decades. Decisions were made to design residential series up to 12 stories high, eliminate combined bathrooms, and equip apartments with built-in furniture. That same year, Gosstroy issued guidelines for the exterior finishing of several housing series to help overcome uniformity. In 1963, the Council of Ministers issued a decree, ''"On Improving Design Work in Civil Construction, Urban Planning, and Development,"'' which established regional design institutes. This measure improved
quality control Quality control (QC) is a process by which entities review the quality of all factors involved in production. ISO 9000 defines quality control as "a part of quality management focused on fulfilling quality requirements". This approach plac ...
over
standardization Standardization (American English) or standardisation (British English) is the process of implementing and developing technical standards based on the consensus of different parties that include firms, users, interest groups, standards organiza ...
and allowed architects to better consider regional characteristics. The following year, a revised edition of residential building codes, ''SNiP II-L.1-62 "Residential Buildings,"'' introduced modest increases in apartment sizes. The minimum living room area was raised from 14 m² to 15 m² in two- and three-room apartments and to 18 m² in four- and five-room apartments. The minimum kitchen size increased from 4.5 m² to 6 m². The number of pass-through rooms was reduced, and separate bathrooms became mandatory for larger apartments. After 1963, second-generation housing series began to emerge. These were not only more comfortable but also allowed for more flexible and diverse microdistrict layouts. Initially, the first mass housing series were expected to remain in use for only five years. However, the transition to second-generation series was significantly delayed, as it required re-equipping prefabricated housing factories. In 1969, the Central Committee of the Communist Party and the Council of Ministers issued a decree, ''"On Measures to Improve the Quality of Residential and Civil Construction,"'' after which the construction of the first mass housing series began to be phased out. In Moscow, these buildings were constructed until 1972, while in the regions, they continued into the late 1970s.


Statistics and rating

The Soviet Union became the world leader in construction speed after 1956, with one in four families receiving a new apartment. Newspapers reported that from 1956 to 1963, the national housing stock nearly doubled—from 640 to 1,184 million square meters—meaning more housing was built in this period than in the previous 40 years.''Григорьева А. Г.'
Решение жилищной проблемы советских граждан в годы «оттепели»
: рх. 19 августа 2019// Теория и практика общественного развития. — 2010. — № 4.
Moscow's housing stock increased by 36 million square meters from 1954 to 1963. The cost per square meter decreased by 6%, while the overall cost of an apartment dropped by 35–40%. When families moved into the first mass-produced housing series, 95% received separate apartments, compared to only 36% in older buildings. However, the living space per person remained nearly unchanged at 6.5–7 square meters in the early 1960s. New housing dramatically transformed the communal lifestyle of the Stalin era. Millions of families moved not just into new apartments but out of overcrowded communal flats, barracks, basements, and
dugouts Dugout may refer to: * Dugout (shelter), an underground shelter * Dugout (boat), a logboat * Dugout (smoking), a marijuana container Sports * In bat-and-ball sports, a dugout is one of two areas where players of the home or opposing teams sit whe ...
into individual housing with modern amenities. This shift created new societal expectations for living conditions. However, the housing crisis was never fully resolved, neither by Khrushchev nor his successors.
Pritzker Prize The Pritzker Architecture Prize is an international award presented annually "to honor a living architect or architects whose built work demonstrates a combination of those qualities of talent, vision and commitment which has produced consisten ...
-winning architect
Oscar Niemeyer Oscar Ribeiro de Almeida Niemeyer Soares Filho (15 December 1907 – 5 December 2012), known as Oscar Niemeyer (), was a Brazilian architect considered to be one of the key figures in the development of modern architecture. Niemeyer was b ...
recognized the social significance of this mass construction:
"You solved an enormous social problem with these buildings. When I built
Brasília Brasília ( ; ) is the capital city, capital of Brazil and Federal District (Brazil), Federal District. Located in the Brazilian highlands in the country's Central-West Region, Brazil, Central-West region, it was founded by President Juscelino ...
, I dreamed of moving people from the
favela Favela () is an umbrella name for several types of impoverished neighborhoods in Brazil. The term, which means slum or ghetto, was first used in the Slum of Providência in the center of Rio de Janeiro in the late 19th century, which was b ...
s into proper housing. You accomplished this, while we did not. Yes, I built a beautiful city, but only for the elite—the favelas remained."
Another Pritzker-winning architect,
Rem Koolhaas Remment Lucas Koolhaas (; born 17 November 1944) is a Dutch architect, architectural theory, architectural theorist, urbanist and Professor in Practice of Architecture and Urban Design at the Harvard Graduate School of Design, Graduate School of ...
, admired Khrushchev's achievements:
"Today, it's hard to find a housing project where simplicity, affordability, and large courtyards coexist. That's why I admire Khrushchev and the speed at which everything was built. I have no issue with repetition as an architectural method... Berlin made a mistake when, after reunification, it demolished everything that was part of the communist aesthetic. I hope Moscow doesn't make the same mistake."
Urban historian Kuba Snopek views Khrushchev-era housing as a cohesive architectural entity, noting its affordability, human-scale design (better than districts where massive 15-story "closets" surround enormous courtyards), and abundant greenery ("a riot of plants, even though it's not a park").
Architectural historian An architectural historian is a person who studies and writes about the history of architecture, and is regarded as an authority on it. Professional requirements As many architectural historians are employed at universities and other facilities ...
Dmitry Khmelnitsky summarized:
"The government's push for mass industrial apartment construction forced a radical shift in urban planning, architectural education, and design institutions. This was an entirely new, Khrushchev-Brezhnev-era city, based on standardized urban planning,
prefabricated housing Prefabricated homes, often referred to as prefab homes or simply prefabs, are specialist dwelling types of prefabricated building, which are manufactured off-site in advance, usually in standard sections that can be easily shipped and assembled. ...
, and uniform apartments for the working class. Unlike Stalin's city, which had a grand central district for the elite and barracks for workers, Khrushchev's vision reintroduced a social purpose to architecture—making mass apartment housing the backbone of the city. It was a revolutionary shift in both the mindset of Soviet leaders and the approach of Soviet architects. ... Western architectural journals began entering the USSR, and translated books were published, quickly revitalizing architectural education. ... But practical implementation was far less successful. While Khrushchev abandoned Stalinist ornamentation, he left intact the rigid bureaucratic system of design, which stifled individual creativity."
Soviet architecture historian Khan-Magomedov acknowledged that Khrushchev's reforms greatly improved living conditions and reconnected Soviet architecture to global trends. However, he highlighted several negative consequences. First, prioritizing standardized prefabricated designs over original solutions stunted architectural and engineering development, leaving designers unaccustomed to solving complex structural problems with monolithic concrete. Second, the fight against "excesses" became absurd—virtually all decorative elements were eliminated, despite their minimal impact on construction costs. Third, while attitudes toward Soviet avant-garde heritage softened, its ideas remained largely inaccessible to architects.
"After 1955, utilitarianism dominated both architectural practice and theory, draining Soviet architecture of artistic expression for decades and leading to a decline in both theory and design."
Urbanist Vladimir Stadnikov noted that Khrushchev-era housing set the stage for the depressing high-rise districts that became common in Russia:
"On one hand, the program was highly successful—never before in our country's history had so many people moved into private housing in such a short time (20–30 years). But it also had disastrous consequences for urban environments and social well-being."
Stalin's former minister
Vyacheslav Molotov Vyacheslav Mikhaylovich Molotov (; – 8 November 1986) was a Soviet politician, diplomat, and revolutionary who was a leading figure in the government of the Soviet Union from the 1920s to the 1950s, as one of Joseph Stalin's closest allies. ...
dismissed Khrushchev's housing efforts as populist pandering:
"They built houses with low ceilings, copying
capitalist Capitalism is an economic system based on the private ownership of the means of production and their use for the purpose of obtaining profit. This socioeconomic system has developed historically through several stages and is defined by ...
designs where the goal is to cram in as many workers as possible!"
Soviet daily life researcher Natalia Lebina, who wrote a book on first-generation Khrushchev-era housing, noted that these buildings are widely seen as dull and inconvenient. In collective memory, they are almost exclusively associated with the term "Khrushchyovka," often used
pejorative A pejorative word, phrase, slur, or derogatory term is a word or grammatical form expressing a negative or disrespectful connotation, a low opinion, or a lack of respect toward someone or something. It is also used to express criticism, hosti ...
ly. The word emerged in Soviet times alongside "Khrushchoba" (a blend of "Khrushchev" and "
slum A slum is a highly populated Urban area, urban residential area consisting of densely packed housing units of weak build quality and often associated with poverty. The infrastructure in slums is often deteriorated or incomplete, and they are p ...
"). These terms appeared in press and literature from the late 1980s and entered dictionaries as colloquial terms in the 1990s. The phrase "first mass series" is also used.


Location and amenities

During the first generation,
urban development Urban means "related to a city". In that sense, the term may refer to: * Urban area, geographical area distinct from rural areas * Urban culture, the culture of towns and cities Urban may also refer to: General * Urban (name), a list of peop ...
transitioned from block-based construction to
microdistrict A microdistrict or microraion is a residential complex—a primary structural element of the residential area construction in the Soviet Union and in some post-Soviet and former socialist states. Residential districts in most of the cities a ...
s. The buildings had no expansion joints and were perceived as a single volumetric-planning element, which limited urban planners' flexibility. The egalitarian mindset of the
Khrushchev Thaw The Khrushchev Thaw (, or simply ''ottepel'')William Taubman, Khrushchev: The Man and His Era, London: Free Press, 2004 is the period from the mid-1950s to the mid-1960s when Political repression in the Soviet Union, repression and Censorship in ...
era led to a universally homogeneous residential environment in the spirit of functionalism. This universality was expressed in linear development: buildings were placed parallel to each other at equal distances, usually along a north-south axis. This arrangement ensured optimal
sunlight Sunlight is the portion of the electromagnetic radiation which is emitted by the Sun (i.e. solar radiation) and received by the Earth, in particular the visible spectrum, visible light perceptible to the human eye as well as invisible infrare ...
exposure, sufficient open space and greenery, cost-efficient construction, and convenient conditions for crane movement. The layout of microdistricts and the selection of building section types were designed so that each apartment received equally good sunlight exposure, while courtyards had optimal ventilation. Courtyard spaces became "open" to the city, eliminating the characteristic courtyard gates and fences of Stalin-era developments. However, this layout resulted in monotony. More successful microdistricts had clear divisions into groups of buildings (such as Agenskalns Pines in
Riga Riga ( ) is the capital, Primate city, primate, and List of cities and towns in Latvia, largest city of Latvia. Home to 591,882 inhabitants (as of 2025), the city accounts for a third of Latvia's total population. The population of Riga Planni ...
, where five- and six-story buildings were contrasted with single-story public buildings) and took advantage of natural landscapes (such as Akademgorodok in
Novosibirsk Novosibirsk is the largest city and administrative centre of Novosibirsk Oblast and the Siberian Federal District in Russia. As of the 2021 Russian census, 2021 census, it had a population of 1,633,595, making it the most populous city in Siber ...
, where microdistricts were integrated into forested areas). At the time of their construction, microdistricts were often located near natural landscapes. These open spaces contributed to the popularity of amateur
skiing Skiing is the use of skis to glide on snow for basic transport, a recreational activity, or a competitive winter sport. Many types of competitive skiing events are recognized by the International Olympic Committee (IOC), and the International S ...
in the 1960s. Courtyards included children's playgrounds, basic sports facilities, and parking spaces. Problems with the new microdistricts included construction debris, dirt, unpaved roads and sidewalks, transportation difficulties, and a shortage of cooperative garages. Many residents who were forcibly relocated from private houses with large plots were unhappy, as they often lost profitable household farming opportunities. Residents also complained about the underdeveloped infrastructure, such as the lack of laundries, shops, and hair salons. Microdistricts in Moscow, Leningrad, Kyiv, Riga, and Vilnius had a higher level of amenities. Even today, first-generation microdistricts remain some of the greenest areas in cities. The few alleys and roads are interconnected by a network of footpaths. All asphalted sections are crowded with parked cars. At intersections, small
kiosk Historically, a kiosk () was a small garden pavilion open on some or all sides common in Iran, Persia, the Indian subcontinent, and in the Ottoman Empire from the 13th century onward. Today, several examples of this type of kiosk still exist ...
s and shops have appeared. Khrushchyovka-era districts have long become an integral part of the
urban landscape In the visual arts, a cityscape (urban landscape) is an artistic representation, such as a painting, drawing, print or photograph, of the physical aspects of a city or urban area. It is the urban equivalent of a landscape. ''Townscape'' is ...
and now have well-established infrastructure.


Structure and architecture


Volumetric planning

First-generation houses were characterized by extremely simple volumetric and planning designs. Most often, they were four-section, five-story rectangular "boxes," with the only protruding facade elements being balconies, entrance groups, and cornices. There were houses with varying numbers of sections and heights ranging from 2 to 9 stories. In rural areas, two-story houses were built. In Riga, Tallinn, and several Ukrainian cities, two- and three-section houses were constructed. These houses rarely included built-in public spaces. The layout hinges on a central staircase, typically two-flight, with one flight to the raised first floor, allowing basement vents above ground. In southern regions, staircases may have three flights or be external. Each floor groups two to four apartments (usually four) around the staircase, with direct door access. Wet areas connect to a shared sewer stack. Apartments include living rooms, a kitchen, an entryway, a bathroom, built-in storage, and a balcony or loggia—all naturally lit. Some designs feature a transom window between bathroom and kitchen. Utility space spans 12-13 m². Early designs feature a common room linking to the bedroom, a bathroom off the entryway, and a kitchen accessed via an alcove—a space-saving "Vesnin technique" from the 1940s that let the cook monitor the common room. Kitchens range from 4.6-7.9 m², influenced by constructivism, European trends, and the rise of dining out and packaged foods, offering more space per person than Stalin-era communal flats. Refrigerators spread, and some brick designs included cold wall cabinets. Bathrooms were separate (toilet and sink/vanity rooms) or combined (all-in-one), with small-family units having a toilet and shower, accessed from the entryway. Bathtubs measured 150×75 cm or 120×70 cm, or sitz baths were used. In hot climates, larger balconies or loggias were added. Bedrooms span 8-13 m², with 6 m² rooms in larger apartments used as nurseries. Private bedrooms, unlike communal flats, enhanced privacy for sleep, intimacy, and self-care, fitted with compact beds, sofa beds, and vanities. The common room, often a pass-through to the kitchen and bedroom, served as a multi-purpose living, dining, and sleeping space. Apartments were assigned by the formula (rooms = residents minus one). With few leisure options in new districts, residents hosted guests in these versatile rooms. Some designs feature four apartments per section with passthrough common rooms to the bedroom and kitchen, though later modifications added separate kitchen access. Ceiling heights were at least 2.5 m, matching French, Swedish, and Finnish standards, lower than Stalin-era housing but adequate for air circulation in family units.


Materials and design

The 1956 design (series no. 1) relied on a structural system with three longitudinal load-bearing panel walls, but by the next year, new approaches emerged. Early housing development focused on finding the optimal structure. A key system was large-panel construction, featuring variations like three longitudinal load-bearing walls, two longitudinal walls with an internal frame, a full frame, combined longitudinal and transverse load-bearing walls, or transverse walls with wide or narrow spacing. One unique solution used closely spaced transverse load-bearing walls made of frame panels with shelves and posts, transferring floor loads through edge supports—a blend of frame and wall systems. As industry adapted to large-panel technology, large-block and brick or brick-block systems gained traction. Experimental houses were also built using volumetric-block methods. Foundations used precast concrete or reinforced concrete blocks and basement panels, with pile options for weak soils. Outer wall panels were precast: ribbed and insulated indoors with foam glass or foam concrete; single-layer panels made of lightweight concrete like expanded clay, gas-ash,
perlite Perlite is an amorphous volcanic glass that has a relatively high water content, typically formed by the Hydrate, hydration of obsidian. It occurs naturally and has the unusual property of greatly expanding when heated sufficiently. It is an indu ...
, slag, or cellular concrete; single-layer slag concrete with vertical voids; dual-layer with an inner lightweight concrete layer; or triple-layer with thin reinforced concrete sheets linked by ribs and filled with mineral wool or light concrete. Frame buildings had reinforced concrete columns per floor, with some designs adding transverse rectangular beams to transfer floor loads to columns and outer wall panels. Floors were precast reinforced concrete: flat solid slabs (80-100 mm thick) sized for a room, upward-ribbed slabs, frequently ribbed with a false ceiling, tent-shaped with downward edge ribs, or multi-hollow slabs. Horizontal joints often featured stepped inner layers, while vertical joints, filled with mortar and tarred caulk, lacked airtightness—later improved with rubber gaskets and exterior sealants. Plumbing units were made of reinforced concrete or metal frames clad with asbestos-cement sheets. Stairs and landings were precast reinforced concrete. Large-block construction used concrete blocks, with outer walls built from sill, pier, and
lintel A lintel or lintol is a type of beam (a horizontal structural element) that spans openings such as portals, doors, windows and fireplaces. It can be a decorative architectural element, or a combined ornamented/structural item. In the case ...
blocks. Brick houses favored cheaper silicate bricks over ceramic. Partitions used thin gypsum-concrete, gypsum-sawdust, gypsum-slag, reinforced concrete, vibro-brick panels, or gypsum-concrete blocks, with dual 80 mm partitions and a 40 mm gap between apartments.


Exterior

These houses reflect postwar functionalist architecture common in Europe, but Soviet constraints—cost-cutting, political pressure, and a focus on technological efficiency—resulted in overly simplistic facades and monotonous, faceless developments. The exterior look stemmed from the nature and production of reinforced concrete structures, though their uniform, limited range stifled expressiveness. Outer panels of the most common designs typically featured a square shape (room-sized) with a central square window, creating repetitive facades marked by a grid of seams. Poor construction quality, lack of effective sealants, and scarce finishing materials worsened the effect. Houses stood out only by series traits: scale, stark simplicity with minimal protrusions, or staircase window shapes. Often, the potential of structural designs went unused, as seen in some series where non-load-bearing outer walls or unique panel shapes weren't highlighted. Architect D. Zadorin praises certain designs: some had corner walls with solid ends and striking facade compositions, while others featured massive, white-painted blocks with ribbed attic elements, with single-section 8- and 9-story buildings acting as focal points amid 5-story surroundings. Architect Georgiy Shemyakin, using one example, defined the emerging Soviet style:
The continuously evolving principles of typification, standardization, and intra- and inter-industry unification contribute to the development of common, stable stylistic features. ..All key parameters of this series' designs are based on the Unified Modular System, ensuring consistency in planning solutions while allowing for multiple construction variations. This approach enables the construction of not only residential buildings with different apartment layouts, lengths, and heights but also most cultural and public service buildings within residential districts—all using a limited set of industrially manufactured components. The new principles of designing comprehensive building series help establish common structural characteristics across different buildings while also allowing for greater variety and expressiveness in urban development. A completely new feature of the socialist architectural style in recent years is its integration with factory-based housing production and the assembly-line construction process.
Designs detached from materials and structure were deemed unacceptable; "truthfulness" became a key term. In 1962, standardized facade options were published for several designs, led by Boris Rafailovich Rubanenko. Panels varied via concrete texturing, colored concrete layers, crushed stone finishes, or small tiles (48×48 to 165×250 mm), with ceramic tile fragments also used. On-site painting in pastel tones, with bold end accents, was common. Facade options suited different climates, with balcony railings—often metal grids paired with asbestos-cement sheets—playing a key role. Entrance designs varied by canopy shape, reinforced concrete or metal supports, and staircase glazing (sometimes with glass blocks), with options for facade flower boxes. Yet, overwhelmed construction firms rarely fully used these options, with greater diversity emerging later. Early on, during the "fight against excesses," architects enlivened brick facades with cornice details supporting sloped roofs, often blending ceramic and silicate bricks in patterns or inscriptions. File:Отделка панелей дома 1-515.png, Finishing with ceramic tile cladding of panels 1-515/5 in Moscow File:Arzamas, Nizhny Novgorod Oblast, Russia - panoramio (209).jpg, Brickwork made of ceramic and silicate bricks, stairwell windows of building 1-447 in
Arzamas Arzamas (, ) is a types of inhabited localities in Russia, city in Nizhny Novgorod Oblast, Russia, located on the Tyosha River (a tributary of the Oka River, Oka), east of Moscow. As of 2024, it has a population of 103,629. History Arzamas ...
File:Эркеры 1-528.png, Bay windows of building 1-528 in Saint Petersburg File:Soviet building in Mustamäe.png, Original
sgraffito (; ) is an artistic or decorative technique of scratching through a coating on a hard surface to reveal parts of another underlying coating which is in a contrasting colour. It is produced on walls by applying layers of plaster tinted in con ...
and restored lattice-slatted balcony railings on building 1-464 in Tallinn File:Vesennij proezd 4.JPG, Building 1-464 in Novosibirsk. On the left—original lattice-sheet balcony railings with flower boxes File:Moscow, traditional sign with apartment numbers (6).jpg, Soviet-style address plaques on the wooden transom of the entrance door of building 1-515 in Moscow File:Domo N 17 en strato Fabriĉnaja kun fenestro de Ozon-distribuejo (Tjumeno) 2.jpg, Entrance design of building 1-464 in
Tyumen Tyumen ( ; rus, Тюмень, p=tʲʉˈmʲenʲ, a=Ru-Tyumen.ogg) is the administrative center and largest types of inhabited localities in Russia, city of Tyumen Oblast, Russia. It is situated just east of the Ural Mountains, along the Tura ( ...


Interiors

The turn in Soviet architecture led to the rejection of excessive decorativeness in interiors, of moldings and complex profiles of joinery. Frequent division of window and door fillings was replaced by simple large forms. Electrical wiring became hidden. The flooring in basements was finished with asphalt concrete and cement coverings; in living rooms - plank floors,
fibreboard Fiberboard (American English) or fibreboard (Commonwealth English) is a type of engineered wood product that is made out of wood fibers. Types of fiberboard (in order of increasing density) include particle board or low-density fiberboard (LDF ...
floors,
parquet Parquet (; French for "a small compartment") is a geometric mosaic of wood pieces used for decorative effect in flooring. Parquet patterns are often entirely geometrical and angular—squares, triangles, lozenges—but may contain curves. T ...
,
linoleum Linoleum is a floor covering made from materials such as solidified linseed oil (linoxyn), Pine Resin, pine resin, ground Cork (material), cork dust, sawdust, and mineral fillers such as calcium carbonate, most commonly on a Hessian fabric, hes ...
and PVC tiles; in bathrooms - metlakh tiles or relin on cement waterproofing or on asbestos-cement sheets with waterproofing between them; in kitchens and hallways - plank floors, linoleum and PVC tiles. The walls were covered with wallpaper and painted; ceramic tiles were also used in bathrooms and kitchens. Finishing works followed the path of
industrialization Industrialisation (British English, UK) American and British English spelling differences, or industrialization (American English, US) is the period of social and economic change that transforms a human group from an agrarian society into an i ...
. Plank floors and fibreboard floors were often installed from pre-fabricated panels; attempts were made to make floors from gypsum cement concrete panels for a room for subsequent finishing; wall panels were delivered to the construction site prepared for finishing and with window and door units inserted; sanitary cabins were delivered with interior finishing; there was a tendency to minimize wet processes at the construction site. Wooden window units with internal and external hinged sashes (paired or separate) of equal width, and vents for ventilation were installed. Window units had poor build quality and did not meet operational and thermal engineering requirements. Experiments were undertaken to install windows with sashes of different widths (Moscow), with sliding sashes (Kostroma). Window sills were reinforced concrete. Interior doors were panel doors with a wooden frame and facing with fiberboard, chipboard, plywood, veneer for painting with enamels or varnishes, blind and glazed. GOST 6629-58 required that doors with panels be phased out by 1960. Skirting boards and door frames were painted wood. As part of the
propaganda Propaganda is communication that is primarily used to influence or persuade an audience to further an agenda, which may not be objective and may be selectively presenting facts to encourage a particular synthesis or perception, or using loaded l ...
of a modern urban lifestyle, numerous advisory literature was published, aimed at people of
peasant A peasant is a pre-industrial agricultural laborer or a farmer with limited land-ownership, especially one living in the Middle Ages under feudalism and paying rent, tax, fees, or services to a landlord. In Europe, three classes of peasan ...
origin moving to large cities. It not only taught etiquette, but also promoted a modernist living environment, contrasting it with the "
bourgeois The bourgeoisie ( , ) are a class of business owners, merchants and wealthy people, in general, which emerged in the Late Middle Ages, originally as a "middle class" between the peasantry and Aristocracy (class), aristocracy. They are tradition ...
taste" of Stalin's "grand style":
Bulky Slavic wardrobes, colossal sideboards and "three-bed"
ottomans Ottoman may refer to: * Osman I, historically known in English as "Ottoman I", founder of the Ottoman Empire * Osman II, historically known in English as "Ottoman II" * Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire (), also called the Turkish Empir ...
, which occupied more than half of the entire area of the apartment, are irrevocably a thing of the past. They are being replaced by light, simple and strict furniture, providing maximum convenience and not cluttering up the rooms. — V. I. Kantor. "Art and Everyday Life". — 1961
The manifestation of the values of the "thaw" was the exhibition "Art into Everyday Life" in 1961, which showed furniture and household items stylistically consistent with the products of Western countries. Furniture for typical small apartments itself had to be typical and compact. The main types of furniture were sideboards, partition cabinets, wall cabinets, built-in cabinets, book shelves with sliding glass doors, sofa beds, armchair beds and other "transformers" taken from the experience of constructivism, coffee tables. Furniture designers sought to use light colors. Furniture was placed along the perimeter of the rooms, creating practically identical interiors. Huge chandeliers and fabric lampshades were replaced by more compact lighting fixtures using plastic, lampshades and floor lamps. The background of exemplary interiors was walls painted in bright, light and warm colors, plain wallpaper with minimal ornamentation. Bright colorful spots of furniture upholstery and curtains served as accents. However, the industry lagged behind the requirements of design and continued to produce outdated wallpaper. Light curtains without draperies, cotton tablecloths, plain colors, geometric and stylized plant prints were included in textile design. Due to the poverty of the population, the interiors of the 1960s retained old furniture of the Stalinist "grand style", as well as handicrafts, forming a homemade eclectic design. File:Khoroshevo-Mnevniki District, Moscow, Russia - panoramio (13).jpg, Staircase of K-7 with tiled finish File:Интерьер 1-438.png, Staircase of 1-438 and vestibule panel door File:Ремонт хрущевки 2018.png, Interior of a room with original doors and painted floor File:Vilnius Energy and Technology Museum 48.JPG, Replica of a typical interior in the Vilnius Energy and Technology Museum File:RIAN archive 714106 The Borshagin's at home.jpg, A family of
textile Textile is an Hyponymy and hypernymy, umbrella term that includes various Fiber, fiber-based materials, including fibers, yarns, Staple (textiles)#Filament fiber, filaments, Thread (yarn), threads, and different types of #Fabric, fabric. ...
factory workers A factory, manufacturing plant or production plant is an industrial facility, often a complex consisting of several buildings filled with machinery, where workers manufacture items or operate machines which process each item into another. They ...
in a common room watching TV File:Bathroom in Tallinn 2.jpg, A bathroom with a sink and a bathtub File:Кухня при сдаче дома.png, Kitchen interior upon commissioning of the house


Notable series


Deterioration

The standard service life of these buildings is 125 years. Surveys conducted in the 2010s indicated that, in most cases, there were no structural damages affecting the overall stability and strength of the buildings, and the load-bearing structures had not yet exhausted their resource. As of 2024, data from the Russian GIS Housing and Utilities Management System (GIS ЖКХ) shows that the average wear and tear of multi-apartment residential buildings constructed between 1958 and 1970 in Russia is 40.1%. By management type: 38.6% for buildings managed by management companies, 36.6% for
housing cooperatives A housing cooperative, or housing co-op, is a legal entity which owns real estate consisting of one or more residential buildings. The entity is usually a cooperative or a corporation and constitutes a form of housing tenure. Typically hous ...
, 33.8% for housing construction cooperatives (ЖК), and 47.1% for buildings under direct management. Surveys of 1-335 series buildings in
Izhevsk Izhevsk or Ijevsk (, ; , or ) is the capital city of Udmurtia, Russia. It is situated along the Izh River, west of the Ural Mountains in Eastern Europe. It is the 21st-largest city in Russia, and the most populous in Udmurtia, with over 600,000 ...
revealed that wear in some buildings could reach 60%. The situation is particularly problematic for 1-335 buildings in oblasts with high
seismic activity An earthquakealso called a quake, tremor, or tembloris the shaking of the Earth's surface resulting from a sudden release of energy in the lithosphere that creates seismic waves. Earthquakes can range in intensity, from those so weak they ...
.


Present day, reconstruction and modernization

The panel buildings called khrushchevka are found in great numbers all over the former Soviet Union. They were originally considered to be temporary housing until the housing shortage could be alleviated by mature communism, which would not have any shortages. Khrushchev predicted the achievement of
communism in 20 years "Communism in 20 years" was a slogan put forth by Nikita Khrushchev at the 22nd Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in 1961. Khrushchev's quote from his speech at the Congress was from this phrase: "We are strictly guided by scien ...
(by the 1980s). Later,
Leonid Brezhnev Leonid Ilyich Brezhnev (19 December 190610 November 1982) was a Soviet politician who served as the General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1964 until Death and state funeral of Leonid Brezhnev, his death in 1982 as w ...
promised each family an apartment "with a separate room for each person plus one room extra", but many people continue to live in khrushchevkas today. In the 1980s, a working group led by historian and architectural theorist Yuri Volchok at the Central Research Institute of Architecture developed a methodology for reconstructing first-generation buildings. Volchok argued that these microdistricts, now in central city areas, should not remain mere bedroom communities. He proposed revitalizing them with projects like youth residential complexes or experimental construction hubs. In 1986, an All-Union competition for five-story building reconstruction was held. The winning project proposed adding floors, eliminating walk-through rooms, expanding kitchens and living spaces, installing elevators and garbage chutes, and improving engineering systems. Many entries included attics and pitched roofs. The Central Research Institute of Housing and Urban Planning later issued guidelines for reconstruction and modernization. Khrushchevka standard types are classified into "disposable", with a planned 25-year life (), and "permanent" (). This distinction is important in Moscow and other affluent cities, where disposable khrushchevkas are being demolished to make way for new, higher-density construction. The City of Moscow had planned to complete this process by 2015. More than 1,300 out of around 1,700 buildings had been already demolished by 2012. In 2017, Moscow city authorities announced that some 8,000 khrushchevkas would be torn down, a move that would cause 1.6 million people to lose their homes. The announcement came after the completion of a smaller demolition project in which 1,700 buildings were torn down. In some parts of the
former Soviet Union The post-Soviet states, also referred to as the former Soviet Union or the former Soviet republics, are the independent sovereign states that emerged/re-emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. Prior to their independence, they ...
and
Eastern Bloc The Eastern Bloc, also known as the Communist Bloc (Combloc), the Socialist Bloc, the Workers Bloc, and the Soviet Bloc, was an unofficial coalition of communist states of Central and Eastern Europe, Asia, Africa, and Latin America that were a ...
countries, efforts to renovate and beautify khrushchevkas have been made, such as in the Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Belarus. In many cities, khrushchevkas have been transformed from drab, gray buildings to colorful housing blocks through series of renovations. In addition, efforts to improve the quality of the buildings have been made. In
Tartu Tartu is the second largest city in Estonia after Tallinn. Tartu has a population of 97,759 (as of 2024). It is southeast of Tallinn and 245 kilometres (152 miles) northeast of Riga, Latvia. Tartu lies on the Emajõgi river, which connects the ...
, Estonia, the
European Union The European Union (EU) is a supranational union, supranational political union, political and economic union of Member state of the European Union, member states that are Geography of the European Union, located primarily in Europe. The u ...
-funded SmartEnCity turned three khrushchevka blocks into energy efficient "smart homes." The renovations are usually heavily
subsidized A subsidy, subvention or government incentive is a type of government expenditure for individuals and households, as well as businesses with the aim of stabilizing the economy. It ensures that individuals and households are viable by having acce ...
by the state, and in many cases, by the European Union if the country is a member state of the EU. In Russia, Belarus, and
Central Asia Central Asia is a region of Asia consisting of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan. The countries as a group are also colloquially referred to as the "-stans" as all have names ending with the Persian language, Pers ...
these same styles of renovations have not taken place, resulting in further dilapidation of the buildings or, in some cases, the demolition of many khrushchevkas. In these parts of the former Soviet Union, private renovation has been the norm, explaining the difference in the conditions of the buildings.


Demolition

The mass demolition of Moscow's first-generation industrial housing began under Mayor Yuri M. Luzhkov in the late 1990s as part of the "Comprehensive Reconstruction Program." The designated "demolishable series" included K-7, II-32, II-35, 1MG-300, and 1-605a. Initially, private developers carried out the work under investment contracts with the city. Following the 2008–2010 financial crisis, Moscow authorities decided to complete the program using the city budget. As of early 2017, 71 buildings remained to be demolished under Luzhkov's program. In 2017, Moscow Mayor
Sergei Sobyanin Sergey Semyonovich Sobyanin (; born 21 June 1958) is a Russian politician, serving as the 3rd mayor of Moscow since 21 October 2010. Sobyanin previously served as the governor of Tyumen Oblast (2001–2005), Head of the presidential administr ...
and Russian President
Vladimir Putin Vladimir Vladimirovich Putin (born 7 October 1952) is a Russian politician and former intelligence officer who has served as President of Russia since 2012, having previously served from 2000 to 2008. Putin also served as Prime Minister of Ru ...
announced the Moscow Urban Renewal Initiative, also known as the "housing renovation program," a vast public works effort to revitalize the city's residential stock. This initiative targets the demolition of 5,171 dilapidated ''Khrushchevkas''—buildings constructed between 1957 and 1968 using standardized wall and floor components, in poor condition, and typically no more than five stories tall—along with several thousand other residential structures, totaling 25 million m². The plan also encompasses pre-revolutionary buildings, Stalinist-era structures ("''stalinkas''"), houses from the architectural
avant-garde In the arts and literature, the term ''avant-garde'' ( meaning or ) identifies an experimental genre or work of art, and the artist who created it, which usually is aesthetically innovative, whilst initially being ideologically unacceptable ...
period, individually designed buildings, and later projects. Upon completion, these will be replaced with modern residential buildings ranging from 6 to 20 stories. The plan upon completion will entail the relocation of 1.6 million city residents. The new program for demolishing standardized houses faced criticism from the professional community and sparked discontent among residents. According to
Rossiyskaya Gazeta ' () is a Russian newspaper published by the Government of Russia. History ''Rossiyskaya Gazeta'' was founded in 1990 by the Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR, Supreme Soviet of the Russian SFSR during the ''glasnost'' reforms in Soviet Union, shortl ...
, spontaneous protests against the program attracted approximately 35,000 participants. Opposition arose from the forced relocation of residents, often to less comfortable, remote districts of Moscow. Architects and urban planners have argued that demolishing such a large number of buildings is environmentally unsustainable. They contend that replacing them with closely spaced, large high-rise towers will lead to over-densification, degrading the urban environment by reducing sunlight, airflow, and green spaces. Critics highlight that the so-called "human anthills" built as replacements are not constructed in any developed country. The environmental organization
Greenpeace Greenpeace is an independent global campaigning network, founded in Canada in 1971 by a group of Environmental movement, environmental activists. Greenpeace states its goal is to "ensure the ability of the Earth to nurture life in all its biod ...
estimated that areas undergoing demolition could lose up to 25% of their green spaces, including ecologically critical zones that purify urban air. Konstantin Yankauskas, a deputy in the Zyuzino District, noted that increasing population density in already overcrowded Moscow would further strain social and transportation infrastructure, potentially causing emergency power outages, long queues for kindergartens and schools, and additional hours spent in traffic. An
RBK Group The RBC Group, or RosBiznesConsulting, is a Russian media group headquartered in Moscow. It was established in 1993. The company holds an informational agency RosBusinessConsulting, including a news web-portal, business newspaper ', monthly bu ...
survey indicated that most major developers were interested in the renovation program. Alexander Balobanov, an associate professor at the Institute of Social Sciences at
Russian Presidential Academy of National Economy and Public Administration The Russian Presidential Academy of National Economy and Public Administration (RANEPA) is a federal state-funded institution of higher education located in Moscow, Russia. With the merger of Academy of National Economy (ANE), Russian Academy ...
, suggested that "there are grounds to believe the construction and development sectors are a major driving force, a significant engine f the program"


In Soviet culture

In 1959, the comic operetta "'' Moscow, Cheryomushki''" by
Dmitri Shostakovich Dmitri Dmitriyevich Shostakovich, group=n (9 August 1975) was a Soviet-era Russian composer and pianist who became internationally known after the premiere of his First Symphony in 1926 and thereafter was regarded as a major composer. Shostak ...
premiered, telling the story of a young couple and their friends moving into new apartments. The operetta gained popularity in the USSR, the West, and the U.S. Four years later, it was adapted into the film "''Cheryomushki''" by
Herbert Rappaport Herbert Rappaport (1908–1983), known in the Soviet Union as Gerbert Moritsevich Rappaport, was an Austrian-Soviet Union, Soviet screenwriter and film director. Rappaport was born in 1908 in Vienna, Austria-Hungary, to Jewish parents from L ...
. Writers praised the five-story buildings, including
Anatoly Rybakov Anatoly Naumovich Rybakov (; – 23 December 1998) was a Soviet and Russian writer, the author of the anti- Stalinist '' Children of the Arbat ''trilogy, the novel ''Heavy Sand'', and many popular children books including ''Adventures of Kr ...
in ''The Adventures of Krosh''. The satirical magazine ''
Krokodil ''Krokodil'' ( rus, Крокодил, p=krəkɐˈdʲil, a= Ru-крокодил.ogg, ) was a Humor magazine , satirical magazine published in the Soviet Union and later Russia. The first issue was published on 27 August 1922 as the satirical supp ...
'' enthusiastically reported on construction progress in the late 1950s and published the poem ''New Cheryomushki'' by Vladimir Zakharovich Mass and Mikhail Abramovich Chervinsky, who also worked on the operetta and film. In painting, Yuri Pimenov's ''New Quarters'' series captured the spirit of the Khrushchev Thaw with works like ''The First Fashionistas of the New Quarter'' and ''Wedding on Tomorrow Street''., ''Khrushchevka. Soviet and non-Soviet in the space of everyday life'', Moscow, , 2024, pp. 410-411 By the early 1960s, enthusiasm waned. In novel ''Judge Us, People'' (1962), a foreman realizes he is building "tiny cells" and "
kennel A kennel is a structure or shelter for dogs. Used in the plural, ''the kennels'', the term means any building, collection of buildings or a property in which dogs are housed, maintained, and (though not in all cases) bred. A kennel can be made o ...
s." After Khrushchev's removal and growing awareness of monotonous construction, ''Krokodil'' openly mocked Khrushchyovkas, and some plays depicted characters lost in identical-looking districts.


See also

*
Danchi (, literally "group land") is the Japanese word for a large cluster of apartment buildings or houses of a particular style and design, typically built as public housing by government authorities. Older danchi are sometimes compared to Khrushchy ...
, a similar Japanese low-cost housing * Urban planning in communist countries *
Stalinist architecture Stalinist architecture (), mostly known in the former Eastern Bloc as Stalinist style or socialist classicism, is the architecture of the Soviet Union under the leadership of Joseph Stalin, between 1933 (when Boris Iofan's draft for the Palace o ...
*
Panelák Panelák is a colloquial term in Czech language, Czech and Slovak language, Slovak for a Large panel system-building, large panel system panel building constructed of pre-fabricated, pre-stressed concrete, such as those extant in the former Soc ...
and
Sídlisko Sídlisko is a term used in Slovak () which mainly means housing complex (with civic amenities). Other terms associated with this term are housing estate, housing development, housing project, settlement, neighbourhood or borough. Althou ...
(Czech Republic and Slovakia) *
Large panel system building A large-panel-system building is a building constructed of large, Concrete slab#Prefabricated, prefabricated concrete slabs. Such buildings are often found in Housing development, housing developments. Although large-panel-system buildings are ...
(''Plattenbau'', Germany) *
Panelház Panelház (, often shortened to ''panel'') is a Hungarian term for a type of concrete block of flats (panel buildings), built in the People's Republic of Hungary and other Eastern Bloc countries. They are also known as Plattenbau in German, Pane ...
(Hungary) *
Million Programme The Million Programme () was a large public housing program implemented in Sweden between 1965 and 1974 by the governing Swedish Social Democratic Party to ensure the availability of affordable, high-quality housing to all Swedish citizens. Th ...
(Sweden) *
Ugsarmal bair Ugsarmal bair (), or just Ugsarmal, is the Mongolian term for prefabricated high rise panel buildings. Most of these buildings were built in the 1970s and 1980s with Soviet funding and Soviet designs. Most of these buildings offered only smal ...
(Mongolia) *
Affordable housing Affordable housing is housing which is deemed affordable to those with a household income at or below the median, as rated by the national government or a local government by a recognized housing affordability index. Most of the literature on ...
*
Public housing Public housing, also known as social housing, refers to Subsidized housing, subsidized or affordable housing provided in buildings that are usually owned and managed by local government, central government, nonprofit organizations or a ...
*
Subsidized housing Subsidized housing is a subsidy aimed towards alleviating housing costs and expenses for impoverished people with low to moderate incomes. In the United States, subsidized housing is often called "affordable housing". Forms of subsidies include d ...
*
Tower blocks A tower block, high-rise, apartment tower, residential tower, apartment block, block of flats, or office tower is a tall building, as opposed to a low-rise building and is defined differently in terms of height depending on the jurisdiction. ...
, a similar public housing project constructed in the
United Kingdom The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain, is a country in Northwestern Europe, off the coast of European mainland, the continental mainland. It comprises England, Scotlan ...


References


Sources

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External links

* * {{Panel buildings Architecture in Russia Architecture in the Soviet Union Soviet phraseology Nikita Khrushchev Economy of the Soviet Union Buildings and structures built in the Soviet Union Prefabricated buildings