The Klis Fortress (; ) is a
medieval fortress situated above the
village of Klis, near
Split
Split(s) or The Split may refer to:
Places
* Split, Croatia, the largest coastal city in Croatia
* Split Island, Canada, an island in the Hudson Bay
* Split Island, Falkland Islands
* Split Island, Fiji, better known as Hạfliua
Arts, enter ...
,
Croatia
Croatia, officially the Republic of Croatia, is a country in Central Europe, Central and Southeast Europe, on the coast of the Adriatic Sea. It borders Slovenia to the northwest, Hungary to the northeast, Serbia to the east, Bosnia and Herze ...
. From its origin as a small
stronghold built by the ancient
Illyrian tribe
Dalmatae
The Dalmatae, alternatively Delmatae, during the Roman period, were a group of Illyrian tribes in Dalmatia, contemporary southern Croatia and western Bosnia and Herzegovina. The region of Dalmatia takes its name from the tribe.
The Delmatae ap ...
, to a role as royal castle and seat of many
Croatian kings, to its final development as a large fortress during the
Ottoman wars in Europe
A series of military conflicts between the Ottoman Empire and various European states took place from the Late Middle Ages up through the early 20th century. The earliest conflicts began during the Byzantine–Ottoman wars, waged in Anatolia in ...
, Klis Fortress has guarded the frontier, being lost and re-conquered several times throughout its 2,000-year history. Due to its location on a pass that separates the mountains
Mosor and
Kozjak, the fortress served as a major source of defense in Dalmatia, especially against the
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire (), also called the Turkish Empire, was an empire, imperial realm that controlled much of Southeast Europe, West Asia, and North Africa from the 14th to early 20th centuries; it also controlled parts of southeastern Centr ...
. It has been a crossroad between the
Mediterranean Sea
The Mediterranean Sea ( ) is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by the Mediterranean basin and almost completely enclosed by land: on the east by the Levant in West Asia, on the north by Anatolia in West Asia and Southern Eur ...
and the
Balkans
The Balkans ( , ), corresponding partially with the Balkan Peninsula, is a geographical area in southeastern Europe with various geographical and historical definitions. The region takes its name from the Balkan Mountains that stretch throug ...
.
Since
Duke Mislav of the
Duchy of Croatia
The Duchy of Croatia (Modern ; also Duchy of the Croats, Modern ; ; ) was a medieval state that was established by White Croats who migrated into the area of the former Roman province of Dalmatia 7th century AD. Throughout its existence the Duch ...
made Klis Fortress the seat of his throne in the middle of the 9th century, the fortress served as the seat of many Croatia's rulers. His successor,
Duke Trpimir I, is significant for spreading
Christianity
Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion, which states that Jesus in Christianity, Jesus is the Son of God (Christianity), Son of God and Resurrection of Jesus, rose from the dead after his Crucifixion of Jesus, crucifixion, whose ...
in the Duchy of Croatia. He expanded the Klis Fortress, and in , in the valley under the fortress, he built a
church
Church may refer to:
Religion
* Church (building), a place/building for Christian religious activities and praying
* Church (congregation), a local congregation of a Christian denomination
* Church service, a formalized period of Christian comm ...
and the first
Benedictine monastery in Croatia. During the reign of the first Croatian king,
Tomislav, Klis and
Biograd na Moru were his chief residences.
In March 1242 at Klis Fortress,
Tatars
Tatars ( )[Tatar]
in the Collins English Dictionary are a group of Turkic peoples across Eas ...
serving in the
Mongol
Mongols are an East Asian ethnic group native to Mongolia, China (Inner Mongolia and other 11 autonomous territories), as well as the republics of Buryatia and Kalmykia in Russia. The Mongols are the principal member of the large family of M ...
army suffered a major defeat while in pursuit of the Hungarian army led by King
Béla IV
Béla may refer to:
* Béla (crater), an elongated lunar crater
* Béla (given name), a common Hungarian male given name
See also
* Bela (disambiguation)
* Belá (disambiguation)
* Bělá (disambiguation) Bělá may refer to:
Places in the Cze ...
. During the
Late Middle Ages
The late Middle Ages or late medieval period was the Periodization, period of History of Europe, European history lasting from 1300 to 1500 AD. The late Middle Ages followed the High Middle Ages and preceded the onset of the early modern period ( ...
, the fortress was governed by
Croatian nobility
Croatian nobility (; ) was a privileged social class in Croatia during the Ancient history, Antiquity and Middle Ages, Medieval periods of the country's history. Noble families in the Kingdom of Croatia (disambiguation), Kingdom of Croatia inclu ...
, amongst whom
Paul I Šubić of Bribir
Paul I Šubić of Bribir (, ; – 1 May 1312) was Ban of Croatia between 1275 and 1312, and List of rulers of Bosnia, Lord of Bosnia from 1299 to 1312. As the oldest son of Stephen II of the Šubić family, Šubić noble family, he inherited th ...
was the most significant. During his reign, the
House of Šubić controlled most of modern-day Croatia and Bosnia. Excluding the brief possession by the forces of
Bosnian King,
Tvrtko I
Stephen Tvrtko I ( sh-Latn-Cyrl, separator=" / ", Stjepan/Stefan Tvrtko, Стјепан/Стефан Твртко; 1338 – 10 March 1391) was the king of Bosnia, first king of Kingdom of Bosnia, Bosnia. A member of the House of Kotromanić, h ...
, the fortress remained in Hungaro-Croatian hands for the next several hundred years, until the 16th century.
Klis Fortress is best known for its role in the
Ottoman invasion of Europe in the early 16th century. Croatian captain
Petar Kružić
Petar Kružić (16 October 1491 – 12 March 1537) was a Croatian knez (title), knez, captain (land), captain, soldier and defender of Klis, and the captain of Senj.
In the early 16th century Petar Kružić ''(knez of Klis)'' defended the F ...
led the defense of the fortress against a Turkish invasion and siege that lasted for more than a quarter of a century. During this defense, as Kružić and his soldiers fought without allies against the Turks, the military faction of
Uskoks was formed, which later became famous as an elite Croatian militant sect. Ultimately, the defenders were defeated and the fortress fell to the Ottomans in 1537. After more than a century under Ottoman rule, in 1669, Klis Fortress was besieged and seized by the
Republic of Venice
The Republic of Venice, officially the Most Serene Republic of Venice and traditionally known as La Serenissima, was a sovereign state and Maritime republics, maritime republic with its capital in Venice. Founded, according to tradition, in 697 ...
. The Venetians restored and enlarged the fortress. In 1797, the fortress was taken by
Austria
Austria, formally the Republic of Austria, is a landlocked country in Central Europe, lying in the Eastern Alps. It is a federation of nine Federal states of Austria, states, of which the capital Vienna is the List of largest cities in Aust ...
after the
Fall of the Republic of Venice
The Republic of Venice was dissolved and dismembered by the French general Napoleon Bonaparte and the Habsburg monarchy on 12 May 1797, ending approximately 1,100 years of its existence. It was the final action of Napoleon's Italian campaign ...
. Today, Klis Fortress contains a museum where visitors to this historic military structure can see an array of arms, armor, and traditional uniforms.
Location
The fortress is located above the
village of Klis, from the
Adriatic Sea
The Adriatic Sea () is a body of water separating the Italian Peninsula from the Balkans, Balkan Peninsula. The Adriatic is the northernmost arm of the Mediterranean Sea, extending from the Strait of Otranto (where it connects to the Ionian Se ...
, on a pass that separates the mountains
Mosor and
Kozjak, at the altitude of , northeast of
Split
Split(s) or The Split may refer to:
Places
* Split, Croatia, the largest coastal city in Croatia
* Split Island, Canada, an island in the Hudson Bay
* Split Island, Falkland Islands
* Split Island, Fiji, better known as Hạfliua
Arts, enter ...
in
Croatia
Croatia, officially the Republic of Croatia, is a country in Central Europe, Central and Southeast Europe, on the coast of the Adriatic Sea. It borders Slovenia to the northwest, Hungary to the northeast, Serbia to the east, Bosnia and Herze ...
.
[Hrvatski leksikon (1996), p. 470.] Owing to its strategic position, the fortress was one of the region's most important
fortification
A fortification (also called a fort, fortress, fastness, or stronghold) is a military construction designed for the defense of territories in warfare, and is used to establish rule in a region during peacetime. The term is derived from Lati ...
s in its history.
Perched on an isolated rocky eminence, inaccessible on three sides, the fortress overlooks Split, the ancient
Roman
Roman or Romans most often refers to:
*Rome, the capital city of Italy
*Ancient Rome, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD
*Roman people, the people of Roman civilization
*Epistle to the Romans, shortened to Romans, a letter w ...
settlement of
Salona
Salona (, ) was an ancient city and the capital of the Roman province of Dalmatia and near to Split, in Croatia. It was one of the largest cities of the late Roman empire with 60,000 inhabitants. It was the last residence of the final western ...
,
Solin
Solin is a town and a suburb of Split, in Split-Dalmatia county, Croatia. It is situated right northeast of Split, on the Adriatic Sea and the river Jadro.
Solin developed on the location of ancient city of ''Salona'', which was the capital o ...
,
Kaštela
Kaštela () is a town in Dalmatia, Croatia. The town is an agglomeration of seven individual settlements which are administered as a single municipality, with populations individually ranging from 3,000 to 7,000 residents. The town is located no ...
and
Trogir
Trogir () is a historic town and harbour on the Adriatic coast in Split-Dalmatia County, Croatia, with a population of 10,107 (2021) and a total municipal population of 12,393 (2021). The historic part of the city is situated on a small island ...
, and most of the central
Dalmatian islands.
Historically, the fortress has controlled access to and from
Bosnia
Bosnia and Herzegovina, sometimes known as Bosnia-Herzegovina and informally as Bosnia, is a country in Southeast Europe. Situated on the Balkans, Balkan Peninsula, it borders Serbia to the east, Montenegro to the southeast, and Croatia to th ...
,
Dalmatia
Dalmatia (; ; ) is a historical region located in modern-day Croatia and Montenegro, on the eastern shore of the Adriatic Sea. Through time it formed part of several historical states, most notably the Roman Empire, the Kingdom of Croatia (925 ...
and
inland Croatia.
The importance of such a position was felt by every army that invaded, or held possession of this part of Croatia.
Klis Fortress was a point against which their attacks were always directed, and it has been remarkable for the many sieges it withstood.
It has been of major strategic value in Croatia throughout history.
History
Ancient stronghold of Illyrians and Romans
The ancient
Illyrian tribe of the
Dalmatae
The Dalmatae, alternatively Delmatae, during the Roman period, were a group of Illyrian tribes in Dalmatia, contemporary southern Croatia and western Bosnia and Herzegovina. The region of Dalmatia takes its name from the tribe.
The Delmatae ap ...
, who held a stronghold on this spot, are the first known inhabitants to have lived on the site of today's Klis Fortress.
They were defeated several times, and in the year 9 AD, finally annexed by
Romans.
Today's Klis Fortress was known to the Romans by the name of ''"Andetrium"'' or ''"Anderium"'',
[Royal Geographical Society (1856), p. 589.] and in later times ''"Clausura"'', which is the origin of later ''"Clissa"'' and modern ''"Klis"''.
[Wilkinson (1848), pp. 169–172.] To the Romans, Klis became famous for its celebrated siege by
Augustus
Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus (born Gaius Octavius; 23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14), also known as Octavian (), was the founder of the Roman Empire, who reigned as the first Roman emperor from 27 BC until his death in A ...
, at the time of the
Illyrian revolt in Dalmatia.
[Collection (1805), pp. 111–116.] The road that lead from Klis to Salona was called "Via Gabiniana" or "Via Gabinia", which according to an inscription found at Salona, appears to have been made by
Tiberius
Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus ( ; 16 November 42 BC – 16 March AD 37) was Roman emperor from AD 14 until 37. He succeeded his stepfather Augustus, the first Roman emperor. Tiberius was born in Rome in 42 BC to Roman politician Tiberius Cl ...
.
Southeast of the fortress, the traces of a Roman camp are still visible, as well as an inscription carved on a rock; both which are supposed to be contemporary with the siege under Tiberius.
The description of this siege during the
Illyrian Wars
The Illyrian Wars were a series of wars fought between the Roman Republic and the Illyrian kingdom under the Ardiaei and Labeatae. In the ''First Illyrian War'', which lasted from 229 BC to 228 BC, Rome's concern was that the trade across the Adr ...
demonstrates that this place was strong and unreachable in those times.
Migration period and the arrival of the Croats
After the
fall of the Roman Empire
The fall of the Western Roman Empire, also called the fall of the Roman Empire or the fall of Rome, was the loss of central political control in the Western Roman Empire, a process in which the Empire failed to enforce its rule, and its vast ...
, Barbarians plundered the region around Klis.
[Fine (The early medieval Balkans – 1991), p. 22.] First it was ruled by
Odoacer
Odoacer ( – 15 March 493 AD), also spelled Odovacer or Odovacar, was a barbarian soldier and statesman from the Middle Danube who deposed the Western Roman child emperor Romulus Augustulus and became the ruler of Italy (476–493). Odoacer' ...
, and then by the
Theodoric the Great
Theodoric (or Theoderic) the Great (454 – 30 August 526), also called Theodoric the Amal, was king of the Ostrogoths (475–526), and ruler of the independent Ostrogothic Kingdom of Italy between 493 and 526, regent of the Visigoths (511–526 ...
, after he eliminated Odoacer, and set up an
Ostrogothic Kingdom
The Ostrogothic Kingdom, officially the Kingdom of Italy (), was a barbarian kingdom established by the Germanic Ostrogoths that controlled Italian peninsula, Italy and neighbouring areas between 493 and 553. Led by Theodoric the Great, the Ost ...
.
After
Justinian I
Justinian I (, ; 48214 November 565), also known as Justinian the Great, was Roman emperor from 527 to 565.
His reign was marked by the ambitious but only partly realized ''renovatio imperii'', or "restoration of the Empire". This ambition was ...
fought an almost continual war for forty years to recover the old Roman Empire, he seized Dalmatia, and Klis was from 537, a part of
Byzantine Empire
The Byzantine Empire, also known as the Eastern Roman Empire, was the continuation of the Roman Empire centred on Constantinople during late antiquity and the Middle Ages. Having survived History of the Roman Empire, the events that caused the ...
.
The name of Klis (''Kleisa'' or ''Kleisoura'') was first described in chapter 29 of Emperor
Constantine Porphyrogenitus' ''De Administrando Imperio''.
[Curta (2006), pp. 100–101.] While describing the Roman settlement of
Salona
Salona (, ) was an ancient city and the capital of the Roman province of Dalmatia and near to Split, in Croatia. It was one of the largest cities of the late Roman empire with 60,000 inhabitants. It was the last residence of the final western ...
, Constantine VII speaks of the stronghold, which may have been designed or improved, to prevent attacks on the coastal cities and roads by
Slavs
The Slavs or Slavic people are groups of people who speak Slavic languages. Slavs are geographically distributed throughout the northern parts of Eurasia; they predominantly inhabit Central Europe, Eastern Europe, Southeastern Europe, and ...
.
Salona, the capital of the
province of Dalmatia was sacked and destroyed in 614 by
Avars and
Slavs
The Slavs or Slavic people are groups of people who speak Slavic languages. Slavs are geographically distributed throughout the northern parts of Eurasia; they predominantly inhabit Central Europe, Eastern Europe, Southeastern Europe, and ...
.
[Fine (The early medieval Balkans – 1991), pp. 34–35.] The population fled to
Diocletian's walled palace of Split, which was able to resist the invaders.
Thereafter, Split rose quickly in importance as one of Dalmatia's major cities.
In the 7th century the Avars were driven out by a second wave of
Croats
The Croats (; , ) are a South Slavs, South Slavic ethnic group native to Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and other neighboring countries in Central Europe, Central and Southeastern Europe who share a common Croatian Cultural heritage, ancest ...
,
on the invitation of Emperor
Heraclius
Heraclius (; 11 February 641) was Byzantine emperor from 610 to 641. His rise to power began in 608, when he and his father, Heraclius the Elder, the Exarch of Africa, led a revolt against the unpopular emperor Phocas.
Heraclius's reign was ...
, in order to counter the Avar threat to the Byzantine Empire.
Constantine Porphyrogenitus
Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus (; 17 May 905 – 9 November 959) was the fourth Byzantine emperor of the Macedonian dynasty, reigning from 6 June 913 to 9 November 959. He was the son of Emperor Leo VI and his fourth wife, Zoe Karbonopsina, an ...
, ''De Administrando Imperio'', ed. Gy. Moravcsik, trans. R.J.H. Jenkins, rev. ed., Washington, Dumbarton Oaks Center for Byzantine Studies, 1967.
Royal Castle

From the early 7th century on, Klis was an important Croat stronghold, and later, one of the seats of many Croatia's rulers.
In the 9th century, Croatian duke
Mislav of the
Duchy of Croatia
The Duchy of Croatia (Modern ; also Duchy of the Croats, Modern ; ; ) was a medieval state that was established by White Croats who migrated into the area of the former Roman province of Dalmatia 7th century AD. Throughout its existence the Duch ...
, from 835 to 845, made the castle of Klis seat of his throne.
Despite
Frankish
Frankish may refer to:
* Franks, a Germanic tribe and their culture
** Frankish language or its modern descendants, Franconian languages, a group of Low Germanic languages also commonly referred to as "Frankish" varieties
* Francia, a post-Roman ...
overlordship, the Franks had almost no role in Croatia in the period from the 820s through 840s. After Mislav's death, starting with
Duke Trpimir I, Klis was ruled by royal members of the
House of Trpimirović, who were at first
Duke
Duke is a male title either of a monarch ruling over a duchy, or of a member of Royal family, royalty, or nobility. As rulers, dukes are ranked below emperors, kings, grand princes, grand dukes, and above sovereign princes. As royalty or nobi ...
s of the Croatian Duchy (''dux Croatorum''), and afterwards
Kings of the
Croatian Kingdom (''rex Croatorum''). They developed the early Roman stronghold into their capital.
Relations with the
Byzantines greatly improved under the Croatian duke Trpimir I, who moved the dux's main residence from
Nin to Klis.
[Fine (The early medieval Balkans – 1991), p. 257.]
The reign of Mislav's successor
Trpimir I
Trpimir I (, ) was a duke () in Croatia from around 845 until his death in 864. He is considered the founder of the Trpimirović dynasty that ruled in Croatia, with interruptions, from around 845 until 1091. Although he was formally vassal of t ...
, is significant for spreading
Christianity
Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion, which states that Jesus in Christianity, Jesus is the Son of God (Christianity), Son of God and Resurrection of Jesus, rose from the dead after his Crucifixion of Jesus, crucifixion, whose ...
in the medieval Croatian state, and for the first mention of the name ''"Croats"'' in domestic documents.
[Curta (2006), p. 139.][Hrvatski leksikon (1996), p. 1022.] On 4 March, in 852, Trpimir I issued a ''"Charter in Biaći"'' () in Latin, confirming Mislav's donations to the
Archbishopric
In church governance, a diocese or bishopric is the ecclesiastical district under the jurisdiction of a bishop.
History
In the later organization of the Roman Empire, the increasingly subdivided provinces were administratively associated ...
in
Split
Split(s) or The Split may refer to:
Places
* Split, Croatia, the largest coastal city in Croatia
* Split Island, Canada, an island in the Hudson Bay
* Split Island, Falkland Islands
* Split Island, Fiji, better known as Hạfliua
Arts, enter ...
.
In this document Trpimir I named himself; ''"By the mercy of God, Duke of Croats"'' (), and his realm as the ''"Realm of the Croats"'' ().
In the same document Trpimir I mentioned Klis as his property — seat.
Under Klis, at , the duke Trpimir built a
church
Church may refer to:
Religion
* Church (building), a place/building for Christian religious activities and praying
* Church (congregation), a local congregation of a Christian denomination
* Church service, a formalized period of Christian comm ...
and the first
Benedictine
The Benedictines, officially the Order of Saint Benedict (, abbreviated as O.S.B. or OSB), are a mainly contemplative monastic order of the Catholic Church for men and for women who follow the Rule of Saint Benedict. Initiated in 529, th ...
monastery
A monastery is a building or complex of buildings comprising the domestic quarters and workplaces of Monasticism, monastics, monks or nuns, whether living in Cenobitic monasticism, communities or alone (hermits). A monastery generally includes a ...
in Croatia, which is known from the discovery of a stone fragment on a gable arch from an altar screen, inscribed with the duke's name and title.
Archaeological excavations found that a church dedicated to
Saint Vitus
Vitus (), whose name is sometimes rendered Guy or Guido, was a Christian martyr from Sicily. His surviving hagiography is pure legend. The dates of his actual life are unknown.Basil Watkins, ''The Book of Saints: A Comprehensive Biographical ...
was founded in the 10th century by a certain Croatian king, along with his wife, Queen
Domaslava, which got destroyed during Ottoman conquests in the 16th century.
A controversial
Saxon
The Saxons, sometimes called the Old Saxons or Continental Saxons, were a Germanic people of early medieval "Old" Saxony () which became a Carolingian " stem duchy" in 804, in what is now northern Germany. Many of their neighbours were, like th ...
theologian of the mid-9th century,
Gottschalk of Orbais
Gottschalk of Orbais (, ''Gotteschalchus''; c. 808 – 30 October 868) was a Saxon theologian, monk and poet. Gottschalk was an early advocate for the doctrine of Predestination (Calvinism)#Double predestination, double predestination, an issue t ...
, spent some time at Trpimir's court between 846 and 848.
His work ''"De Trina deitate"'' is an important source of information for Trpimir's reign.
Gottschalk was a witness to the battle between Trpimir and Byzantine strategos, when Trpimir was victorious.
During the reign of Croatian king
Tomislav, who had no permanent capital, the castle of Klis along with
Biograd, were his chief residences.
[Fine (The early medieval Balkans – 1991), p. 263.]
Knights Templar

From the early 12th century, and after the decay of the native Croatian royal family of Trpimirović, the castle of Klis was mainly governed by
Croatian nobility
Croatian nobility (; ) was a privileged social class in Croatia during the Ancient history, Antiquity and Middle Ages, Medieval periods of the country's history. Noble families in the Kingdom of Croatia (disambiguation), Kingdom of Croatia inclu ...
, under the supremacy of Hungarian kings. The
Kingdom of Croatia and the
Kingdom of Hungary
The Kingdom of Hungary was a monarchy in Central Europe that existed for nearly a millennium, from 1000 to 1946 and was a key part of the Habsburg monarchy from 1526-1918. The Principality of Hungary emerged as a Christian kingdom upon the Coro ...
were, from 1102, in a
personal union
A personal union is a combination of two or more monarchical states that have the same monarch while their boundaries, laws, and interests remain distinct. A real union, by contrast, involves the constituent states being to some extent in ...
of two kingdoms, united under the Hungarian king.
[The actual nature of the relationship is inexplicable in modern terms because it varied from time to time. (Bellamy (2003), p. 38.) Sometimes Croatia acted as an independent agent and at other times as a vassal of Hungary. (Bellamy (2003), p. 38.) However, Croatia retained a large degree of internal independence. (Bellamy (2003), p. 38.) The degree of Croatian autonomy fluctuated throughout the centuries as did its borders. (Singleton (1989), p. 29.)][Regional Surveys of the World (1996), p. 271.]
Andrew II of Hungary
Andrew II (, , , ; 117721 September 1235), also known as Andrew of Jerusalem, was King of Hungary and King of Croatia, Croatia between 1205 and 1235. He ruled the Principality of Halych from 1188 until 1189/1190, and again between 1208/1209 and ...
was extremely favorably disposed towards the
Templars.
[Hunyadi and Laszlovszky (2001), p. 137.] During his participation in the
Fifth Crusade
The Fifth Crusade (September 1217 - August 29, 1221) was a campaign in a series of Crusades by Western Europeans to reacquire Jerusalem and the rest of the Holy Land by first conquering Egypt, ruled by the powerful Ayyubid sultanate, led by al- ...
, he appointed
Pontius de Cruce, Master of the Order in the Hungarian Kingdom, as a regent in Croatia and Dalmatia.
After his return in 1219, in recognition of the great logistical and financial support which the Order had given him during the campaign, he granted the Order the estate of
Gacka
The Gacka is a river located in the Lika region of central Croatia.
Because for a large part of its course it is a subterranean river, estimates of its length vary. The aboveground part has undergone substantial human intervention – before it ...
.
Even before his departure from the city of Split in 1217, he had made over to the Templars the castle of Klis (''Clissa''), a strategic point in the hinterland of Split (''Spalato''), which controlled the approaches to the town.
The king Andrew was reluctant to entrust the castle of Klis to any of the local magnates, knowing what great harm could come from that castle.
[Archdeacon (2006), pp. 161–163.] It was the king's will that Split receive the castle of Klis for the defense of their city.
The city of Split showed little interest in the royal favors, so the king entrusted Klis into Templars hands.
Shortly after this, the Templars lost Klis, and, in exchange, the king gave them the coastal town of
Šibenik
Šibenik (), historically known as Sebenico (), is a historic town in Croatia, located in central Dalmatia, where the river Krka (Croatia), Krka flows into the Adriatic Sea. Šibenik is one of the oldest Croatia, Croatian self-governing cities ...
(''Sebenico'').
Mongol siege
Tatars
Tatars ( )[Tatar]
in the Collins English Dictionary are a group of Turkic peoples across Eas ...
under the leadership of
Kadan
Kadan (also Qadan) was the son of the second Great Khan of the Mongols Ögedei and a concubine. He was the grandson of Genghis Khan and the brother of Güyük Khan. During the Mongol invasion of Europe, Kadan, along with his cousin Baidar ( ...
experienced a major failure in March 1242 at Klis Fortress, when they were hunting for
Béla IV of Hungary
Béla IV (1206 – 3 May 1270) was King of Hungary and King of Croatia, Croatia between 1235 and 1270, and Duke of Styria from 1254 to 1258. As the oldest son of Andrew II of Hungary, King Andrew II, he was crowned upon the initiative of a group ...
.
The Tatars believed that the king was in the Klis Fortress, and so they began to attack from all sides, launching arrows and hurling spears.
[Archdeacon (2006), p. 299.] However, the natural defenses of the fortress gave protection, and the Tatars could cause only limited harm.
They dismounted from their horses and began to creep up hand over hand to higher ground.
But the fortress defenders hurled huge stones at them, and managed to kill a great number.
This setback only made the Tatars more ferocious, and they came right up to the great walls and fought hand to hand.
They looted the houses in the outskirt of the fortress and took away much plunder, but failed to take Klis altogether.
Upon learning that the king was not there, they abandoned their attack, and ascending their mounts rode off in the direction of Trogir,
a number of them turning off toward Split.
The Mongols attacked the Dalmatian cities for the next few years but eventually withdrew without major success, as the mountainous terrain and distance were not suitable for their style of warfare.
They pursued Béla IV from town to town in Dalmatia.
The
Croatian nobility
Croatian nobility (; ) was a privileged social class in Croatia during the Ancient history, Antiquity and Middle Ages, Medieval periods of the country's history. Noble families in the Kingdom of Croatia (disambiguation), Kingdom of Croatia inclu ...
and Dalmatian towns such as
Trogir
Trogir () is a historic town and harbour on the Adriatic coast in Split-Dalmatia County, Croatia, with a population of 10,107 (2021) and a total municipal population of 12,393 (2021). The historic part of the city is situated on a small island ...
and
Rab helped Béla IV to escape.
After this failure, the Mongols retreated and Béla IV rewarded the Croatian towns and nobility.
Only the city of
Split
Split(s) or The Split may refer to:
Places
* Split, Croatia, the largest coastal city in Croatia
* Split Island, Canada, an island in the Hudson Bay
* Split Island, Falkland Islands
* Split Island, Fiji, better known as Hạfliua
Arts, enter ...
did not help Béla IV in his escape.
Some historians claim that the mountainous terrain of Croatian Dalmatia was fatal for the Mongols, because they suffered great losses when attacked by the
Croats
The Croats (; , ) are a South Slavs, South Slavic ethnic group native to Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and other neighboring countries in Central Europe, Central and Southeastern Europe who share a common Croatian Cultural heritage, ancest ...
from ambushes in mountain passes.
[Klaić V., Povijest Hrvata, Knjiga Prva, Druga, Treća, Četvrta i Peta Zagreb 1982. ] Other historians claim that the death of
Ögedei Khan
Ögedei Khan (also Ögedei Khagan or Ogodei; 11 December 1241) was the second Khan (title), khan of the Mongol Empire. The third son of Genghis Khan, he continued the expansion of the empire that his father had begun.
Born in 1186 AD, Öged ...
() was the only reason for retreat. Much of Croatia was plundered by the Mongols, but without any major military success.
Saint Margaret (January 27, 1242 – January 18, 1271), a daughter of Béla IV and
Maria Laskarina, was born in Klis Fortress during the
Mongol invasion of Hungary-Croatia.
Šubić's rule
The weakening of royal authority under
Stephen V of Hungary
Stephen V (, , ; before 18 October 1239 – 6 August 1272) was King of Hungary and King of Croatia, Croatia between 1270 and 1272, and Duke of Styria from 1258 to 1260. He was the oldest son of King Béla IV and Maria Laskarina. King Béla ...
allowed the
House of Šubić to regain their former role in Dalmatia.
[Fine (The Late Medieval Balkans – 1994), p. 206.] In 1274,
Stjepko Šubić of Bribir died, and
Paul I Šubić of Bribir
Paul I Šubić of Bribir (, ; – 1 May 1312) was Ban of Croatia between 1275 and 1312, and List of rulers of Bosnia, Lord of Bosnia from 1299 to 1312. As the oldest son of Stephen II of the Šubić family, Šubić noble family, he inherited th ...
succeeded him as the family elder.
Soon,
Ladislaus IV of Hungary
Ladislaus IV (, , ; 5 August 1262 – 10 July 1290), also known as Ladislaus the Cuman, was King of Hungary and Croatia from 1272 to 1290. His mother, Elizabeth, was the daughter of a chieftain from the pagan Cumans who had settled in Hung ...
, recognizing the balance of power in Dalmatia, named Paul I as
Ban of Croatia and Dalmatia.
Ladislaus IV died in 1290 leaving no sons, and a civil war between rival candidates, pro-Hungarian
Andrew III of Hungary
Andrew III the Venetian (, , ; – 14 January 1301) was King of Hungary and King of Croatia, Croatia between 1290 and 1301. His father, Stephen the Posthumous, was the posthumous son of Andrew II of Hungary although Stephen's older half brother ...
, and pro-Croatian
Charles Martel of Anjou
Charles Martel (; 8 September 1271 – 12 August 1295) of the Capetian dynasty was the eldest son of king Charles II of Naples and Mary of Hungary, the daughter of King Stephen V of Hungary.
__NOTOC__
The 18-year-old Charles Martel was set up by ...
, started.
[Fine (The Late Medieval Balkans – 1994), pp. 207–208.] Charles Martel's father
Charles II of Naples
Charles II, also known as Charles the Lame (; ; 1254 – 5 May 1309), was King of Naples, Count of Provence and Forcalquier (1285–1309), Prince of Achaea (1285–1289), and Count of Anjou and Maine (1285–1290); he also was King of Albania ( ...
, awarded all Croatia from
Gvozd Mountain to the river
Neretva mouth hereditary to Paul I Šubić of Bribir.
Thus, Charles converted Paul's personal position as Ban into a hereditary one for the Šubić family.
All the other nobles in this region, were to be vassals of Paul Šubić.
In response, Andrew III in 1293 issued a similar charter for Paul Šubić.
During this struggle over the throne,
George I Šubić of Bribir, Ban Paul's brother went to Italy, visiting the pope and the Naples court.
[Fine (The Late Medieval Balkans – 1994), pp. 208–209.] In August 1300, George I returned to Split, bringing
Charles Robert with him.
Paul Šubić accompanied Charles Robert (later known as Charles I of Hungary) to
Zagreb
Zagreb ( ) is the capital (political), capital and List of cities and towns in Croatia#List of cities and towns, largest city of Croatia. It is in the Northern Croatia, north of the country, along the Sava river, at the southern slopes of the ...
, where he was recognized as king; then they proceeded to
Esztergom
Esztergom (; ; or ; , known by Names of European cities in different languages: E–H#E, alternative names) is a city with county rights in northern Hungary, northwest of the capital Budapest. It lies in Komárom-Esztergom County, on the righ ...
, where, in 1301, the Archbishop of Esztergom crowned him as King of Hungary and Croatia.
Paul I Šubić, Ban of Croatia and Dalmatia, became
Lord of all of Bosnia
This is a list of monarchs of Bosnia, containing bans and kings of Medieval Bosnia; Bosnia (early medieval), Banate of Bosnia, Kingdom of Bosnia.
Duke (1084–1095)
Bans (1154–1377)
Kings and queen (1377–1463)
All Bosnian kings added ...
in 1299.
[Fine (The Late Medieval Balkans – 1994), pp. 209–210.] Although supporting the king, Paul I continued to act independently, and ruled over a large portion of modern-day Croatia and Bosnia.
He appointed his brothers as commissars of Dalmatian cities, and gave Split to his brother
Mladen I Šubić, and
Šibenik
Šibenik (), historically known as Sebenico (), is a historic town in Croatia, located in central Dalmatia, where the river Krka (Croatia), Krka flows into the Adriatic Sea. Šibenik is one of the oldest Croatia, Croatian self-governing cities ...
,
Nin,
Trogir
Trogir () is a historic town and harbour on the Adriatic coast in Split-Dalmatia County, Croatia, with a population of 10,107 (2021) and a total municipal population of 12,393 (2021). The historic part of the city is situated on a small island ...
and
Omiš
Omiš () is a town and port in the Dalmatia region of Croatia, and a municipality in the Split-Dalmatia County. The town is approximately south-east of Croatia's second largest city, Split (city), Split, where the Cetina River meets the Adriatic ...
to his brother
George I Šubić.
After George I Šubić died in 1302, his brother Mladen I Šubić ruled as a
Bosnian Ban over
Bosnia
Bosnia and Herzegovina, sometimes known as Bosnia-Herzegovina and informally as Bosnia, is a country in Southeast Europe. Situated on the Balkans, Balkan Peninsula, it borders Serbia to the east, Montenegro to the southeast, and Croatia to th ...
from Klis Fortress, until he was killed in a battle during 1304.
Then, Šubić gave the Klis Fortress to his son
Mladen II Šubić
Mladen () is a South Slavic masculine given name, derived from the Slavic root ''mlad'' (, ), meaning "young". It is present in Bosnian, Slovenian, Montenegrin, Macedonian, Bulgarian, Serbian, and Croatian society since the Middle Ages.
...
, who ruled over Bosnia like his uncle Mladen I.
George II Šubić and his son,
Mladen III Šubić
Mladen III Šubić () ( 1315 – Trogir, 1 May 1348) was a member of the Croatian Šubić noble family, who ruled from Klis Fortress. He was in possession of Klis, Omiš and Skradin. He is also known as Shield of the Croats (Clipeus Croator ...
, ruled over Klis Fortress until the late 14th century.
During summer-long festivities in Klis Fortress, open to the whole population, Mladen III Šubić gave his sister's
Jelena Šubić
Jelena Šubić (died 1378) was a member of the Bribir branch of the Croatian Šubić noble family who ruled the Banate of Bosnia as regent from 1354 until 1357 during the minority of her son Tvrtko I of Bosnia.
Life
Jelena was the daughter of ...
hand in marriage to
Vladislaus of Bosnia, from the
House of Kotromanić
A house is a single-unit residential building. It may range in complexity from a rudimentary hut to a complex structure of wood, masonry, concrete or other material, outfitted with plumbing, electrical, and heating, ventilation, and air cond ...
.
Jelena Šubić gave birth to the first
Bosnian King,
Tvrtko I
Stephen Tvrtko I ( sh-Latn-Cyrl, separator=" / ", Stjepan/Stefan Tvrtko, Стјепан/Стефан Твртко; 1338 – 10 March 1391) was the king of Bosnia, first king of Kingdom of Bosnia, Bosnia. A member of the House of Kotromanić, h ...
, who later inherited the fortress.
Petar Kružić and Uskoks
Owing to its location, Klis Fortress was an important defensive position during the
Ottoman conquest of the Balkans
A series of military conflicts between the Ottoman Empire and various European states took place from the Late Middle Ages up through the early 20th century. The earliest conflicts began during the Byzantine–Ottoman wars, waged in Anatolia i ...
.
[Singleton (1989), pp. 60–62.] The fortress stands along the route by which the Ottomans could penetrate the mountain barrier separating the coastal lowlands from around Split, from Turkish-held Bosnia.
The Croat feudal lord
Petar Kružić
Petar Kružić (16 October 1491 – 12 March 1537) was a Croatian knez (title), knez, captain (land), captain, soldier and defender of Klis, and the captain of Senj.
In the early 16th century Petar Kružić ''(knez of Klis)'' defended the F ...
gathered together a garrison composed of Croat refugees, who used the base at Klis both to hold the Turks at bay, and to engage in marauding and piracy against coastal shipping.
Although nominally accepting the sovereignty of the Habsburg king
Ferdinand
Ferdinand is a Germanic name composed of the elements "journey, travel", Proto-Germanic , abstract noun from root "to fare, travel" (PIE , "to lead, pass over"), and "courage" or "ready, prepared" related to Old High German "to risk, ventu ...
who had obtained the Croatian crown in 1527, Kružić and his freebooting
Uskoks were a law unto themselves.
When a large Turkish force threatened the fortress, Kružić appealed to Ferdinand I for help, but the Emperor's attention was diverted by a Turkish invasion into
Slavonia
Slavonia (; ) is, with Dalmatia, Croatia proper, and Istria County, Istria, one of the four Regions of Croatia, historical regions of Croatia. Located in the Pannonian Plain and taking up the east of the country, it roughly corresponds with f ...
.
For more than two and half decades, Captain Kružić, also called ''(Prince of Klis)'', defended the fortress against the Turkish invasion.
Kružić led the defense of Klis, and with his soldiers fought almost alone against the Ottomans, as they hurled army after army against the fortress.
No troops would come from the Hungarian king, as they were defeated by the Ottomans at the
Battle of Mohács
The Battle of Mohács (; , ) took place on 29 August 1526 near Mohács, in the Kingdom of Hungary. It was fought between the forces of Hungary, led by King Louis II of Hungary, Louis II, and the invading Ottoman Empire, commanded by Suleima ...
in 1526, and the
Venetians baulked at sending any help.
Only the
pope
The pope is the bishop of Rome and the Head of the Church#Catholic Church, visible head of the worldwide Catholic Church. He is also known as the supreme pontiff, Roman pontiff, or sovereign pontiff. From the 8th century until 1870, the po ...
s were willing to provide some men and money.
Final Ottoman siege
Pope Paul III
Pope Paul III (; ; born Alessandro Farnese; 29 February 1468 – 10 November 1549) was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 13 October 1534 to his death, in November 1549.
He came to the papal throne in an era follo ...
claimed some rights in Klis, and in September, 1536, there was talk in the
Curia
Curia (: curiae) in ancient Rome referred to one of the original groupings of the citizenry, eventually numbering 30, and later every Roman citizen was presumed to belong to one. While they originally probably had wider powers, they came to meet ...
of strengthening the defenses of the fortress.
[Setton (1984), p. 421.] The Pope notified
Ferdinand
Ferdinand is a Germanic name composed of the elements "journey, travel", Proto-Germanic , abstract noun from root "to fare, travel" (PIE , "to lead, pass over"), and "courage" or "ready, prepared" related to Old High German "to risk, ventu ...
that he was willing to share the costs of maintaining a proper garrison in Klis.
Ferdinand I did send aid to Klis and was apparently hopeful of holding the fortress, when the Turks again laid siege to it.
Ferdinand I recruited men from
Trieste
Trieste ( , ; ) is a city and seaport in northeastern Italy. It is the capital and largest city of the Regions of Italy#Autonomous regions with special statute, autonomous region of Friuli-Venezia Giulia, as well as of the Province of Trieste, ...
and elsewhere in the Habsburg lands, and Pope Paul III sent soldiers from
Ancona
Ancona (, also ; ) is a city and a seaport in the Marche region of central Italy, with a population of around 101,997 . Ancona is the capital of the province of Ancona, homonymous province and of the region. The city is located northeast of Ro ...
.
There were about 3,000 infantry in the reinforcements, which made a sizeable relief force, that were commanded by Petar Kružić,
Niccolo dalla Torre, and a papal commissioner
Jacomo Dalmoro d'Arbe.
On March 9, 1537, they disembarked near Klis, at a place called S. Girolamo, with fourteen pieces of artillery.
After Ibrahim's death,
Suleiman the Magnificent
Suleiman I (; , ; 6 November 14946 September 1566), commonly known as Suleiman the Magnificent in the Western world and as Suleiman the Lawgiver () in his own realm, was the List of sultans of the Ottoman Empire, Ottoman sultan between 1520 a ...
sent 8,000 men under the command of
Murat-beg Tardić (Amurat Vaivoda), a Croatian renegade who had been born in
Šibenik
Šibenik (), historically known as Sebenico (), is a historic town in Croatia, located in central Dalmatia, where the river Krka (Croatia), Krka flows into the Adriatic Sea. Šibenik is one of the oldest Croatia, Croatian self-governing cities ...
, to go and lay siege to Klis fortress (''Clissa''), and fight against Petar Kružić.
[Spandouginos (1997), p. 75.] An initial encounter of the Christian relief force with the Turks was indecisive, but, on March 12, they were overwhelmed by the arrival of a great number of Turks.
The attempts to relieve the citadel ended in farce.
[Bousfield (2003), p. 313.] Badly-drilled reinforcements sent by the Habsburgs fled in fear of the Turks, and their attempts to re-board their boats at Solin bay caused many vessels to sink.
Niccolo dalla Torre and the papal commissioner managed to escape.
Kružić himself – who had left the fortress to make contact with the reinforcements was captured and executed: the sight of his head on a stick was too much for the remaining defenders of Klis, who were now willing to give up the fortress in return for safe passage north.
After Petar Kružić's death, and with a lack of water supplies, the Klis defenders finally surrendered to the Ottomans in exchange for their freedom, on March 12, 1537.
Many of the citizens fled the town, while the
Uskoci retreated to the city of
Senj
Senj is a town on the upper Adriatic coast in Croatia, in the foothills of the Mala Kapela and Velebit mountains.
The symbol of the town is the Nehaj Fortress () which was completed in 1558. For a time this was the seat of the Uskoks, who were ...
, where they continued fighting the Turkish invaders.
Sanjak centre of Ottoman Bosnia
During the
Ottoman wars in Europe
A series of military conflicts between the Ottoman Empire and various European states took place from the Late Middle Ages up through the early 20th century. The earliest conflicts began during the Byzantine–Ottoman wars, waged in Anatolia in ...
, Klis Fortress was, for a century, an administrative centre or
sanjak
A sanjak or sancak (, , "flag, banner") was an administrative division of the Ottoman Empire. The Ottomans also sometimes called the sanjak a liva (, ) from the name's calque in Arabic and Persian.
Banners were a common organization of nomad ...
(Kilis Sancağı) of the
Bosnia Eyalet
The Eyalet of Bosnia (; By Gábor Ágoston, Bruce Alan Masters ; ), was an eyalet (administrative division, also known as a ''beylerbeylik'') of the Ottoman Empire, mostly based on the territory of the present-day state of Bosnia and Herzegovina. ...
.
On April 7, 1596, Split noblemen Ivan Alberti and Nikola Cindro, along with Uskoci, Poljičani, and Kaštelani irregulars, organized an occupation of Klis.
Assisted by dissident elements of the Turkish garrison, they succeeded.
[Setton (1984), p. 9.] Bey Mustafa responded by bringing more than 10,000 soldiers under the fortress.
General
Ivan Lenković, leading 1,000 Uskoci, came in relief of the 1,500 Klis defenders.
During the battle, Ivan Lenković and his men retreated after he was wounded in battle, and the fortress was lost to the Turks, on May 31.
Nevertheless, this temporary relief resounded in Europe and among the local population.

From the well-fortified position in the Klis Fortress, the Turks were a constant threat to the Venetians and to the local Croatian population in the surrounding area. In 1647, after the Turkish success at
Novigrad, the Turks were said to have 30,000 troops ready to attack Split.
[Setton (1984), p. 144.] The
Signoria
A ''signoria'' () was the governing authority in many of the Italian city-states during the Medieval and Renaissance periods.
The word ''signoria'' comes from ''signore'' (), or "lord", an abstract noun meaning (roughly) "government", "governi ...
send off two thousand soldiers with munitions and provisions to the threatened area.
Although Split and
Zadar
Zadar ( , ), historically known as Zara (from Venetian and Italian, ; see also other names), is the oldest continuously inhabited city in Croatia. It is situated on the Adriatic Sea, at the northwestern part of Ravni Kotari region. Zadar ...
were strong fortresses, they were clearly in danger.
The Klis mosque / church
The Ottomans built a stone mosque with a
dome
A dome () is an architectural element similar to the hollow upper half of a sphere. There is significant overlap with the term cupola, which may also refer to a dome or a structure on top of a dome. The precise definition of a dome has been a m ...
and a
minaret
A minaret is a type of tower typically built into or adjacent to mosques. Minarets are generally used to project the Muslim call to prayer (''adhan'') from a muezzin, but they also served as landmarks and symbols of Islam's presence. They can h ...
on the foundations of an earlier Old Croatian Catholic chapel
inside the Klis fortress shortly after they had conquered it. It is a simple constructed square with the octagonal stone roof, designed primarily for military/religious use by the garrisons stationed inside the fortress. After the Venetians had conquered the fortress from the Ottomans, they destroyed the minaret and converted the mosque into a Roman Catholic church, dedicated to
St. Vitus ().
The building has been in that use ever since. It is one of three preserved Ottoman mosques on the territory of Croatia, the other two being in towns of
Drniš
Drniš is a town in the Šibenik-Knin County, Croatia. Located in the Dalmatian Hinterland, it is about halfway between Šibenik and Knin.
History
The name Drniš was mentioned for the first time in a contract dated March 8, 1494. However, the ...
and
Đakovo
Đakovo (; , , sr-Cyrl, Ђаково) is a town in the region of Slavonia, Croatia. Đakovo is the centre of the fertile and rich Đakovo region ( ).
Etymology
The etymology of the name is the (diákos) in Slavic form đak (pupil). The Hungar ...
.
Venetian rule
In 1420, the
Anjou contender
Ladislaus of Naples
Ladislaus the Magnanimous (, ; 15 February 1377 – 6 August 1414) was King of Naples from 1386 until his death and an unsuccessful claimant to the kingdoms of Hungary and Croatia. Ladislaus was a skilled political and military leader, protector ...
was defeated and forced to sail away for
Naples
Naples ( ; ; ) is the Regions of Italy, regional capital of Campania and the third-largest city of Italy, after Rome and Milan, with a population of 908,082 within the city's administrative limits as of 2025, while its Metropolitan City of N ...
. Upon his departure he sold his "rights" to Dalmatia to the
Venetian Republic
The Republic of Venice, officially the Most Serene Republic of Venice and traditionally known as La Serenissima, was a sovereign state and Maritime republics, maritime republic with its capital in Venice. Founded, according to tradition, in 697 ...
for the relatively meager sum of 100,000
ducats. However, Klis and Klis Fortress remained parts of the Kingdom of Croatia.
From that time, the Venetians were eager to take control over Klis, as the fortress was one of the region's most important strategic points.

The Venetians fought for decades before they finally managed to re-take Klis.
During the
Fifth Ottoman–Venetian War in Dalmatia (1645–1669), the Venetians enjoyed the support of the local population of Dalmatia, particularly the
Morlachs
Morlachs ( sh-Latn-Cyrl, Morlaci, Морлаци; ; ) is an exonym used for a rural Christian community in Herzegovina, Lika and the Dalmatian Hinterland. The term was initially used for a bilingual Vlach pastoralist community in the mountain ...
(Morlacchi).
Venetian commander
Leonardo Foscolo seized several forts, retook
Novigrad, temporarily captured the
Knin Fortress
Knin Fortress () is located near the tallest mountain in Croatia, Dinara, and near the source of the river Krka (Croatia), Krka. It is the second largest fortress in Croatia and most significant defensive stronghold,Hrvatska enciklopedija, Dalib ...
, and managed to compel the garrison of Klis Fortress to surrender. At the same time, a month-long siege of the Šibenik Fortress by the Ottomans in August and September failed.
[Fraser (1854), pp. 244–245.][Setton (1991), pp. 148–149.]
From 1669, Klis Fortress was in the possession of the Venetians, and it remained so until the
fall of the Venetian state.
The Venetians restored and enlarged the fortress during their rule.
After another, the seventh war with the Turks from 1714 to 1718, the Venetians were able to advance up to the present Bosnian/Croatian border, taking in the whole
Sinjsko Polje and
Imotski
Imotski () is a small town on the northeastern side of the Biokovo massif in the Dalmatian Hinterland of southern Croatia, near the border with Bosnia and Herzegovina. The town has a generally mild Mediterranean climate which makes it a popular ...
.
Venice had no serious challenge to its authority in Dalmatia for some time, reducing the importance of the fortress.
Napoleon
Napoleon Bonaparte (born Napoleone di Buonaparte; 15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821), later known by his regnal name Napoleon I, was a French general and statesman who rose to prominence during the French Revolution and led Military career ...
's success in the
Italian campaigns of the French Revolutionary Wars
The Italian campaigns of the French Revolutionary Wars (1792–1801) were a series of conflicts fought principally in Northern Italy between the French Revolutionary Army and a Coalition of Austria, Russia, Piedmont-Sardinia, and a number o ...
resulted in the Republic of Venice being partitioned in 1797.
Subsequently, Klis was taken by the Habsburg
Archduchy of Austria
The Archduchy of Austria (; ) was a major Princes of the Holy Roman Empire, principality of the Holy Roman Empire and the nucleus of the Habsburg monarchy. With its capital at Vienna, the archduchy was centered at the Empire's southeastern periph ...
as a result of the
Treaty of Campo Formio
The Treaty of Campo Formio (today Campoformido) was signed on 17 October 1797 (26 Vendémiaire VI) by Napoleon Bonaparte and Count Philipp von Cobenzl as representatives of the French Republic and the Austrian monarchy, respectively. The trea ...
.
The border between Christian and Muslim Europe had moved further east in this time, and the fortress lost its strategic importance.
At some point during Austro-Hungarian rule in the 19th century, the military fully abandoned the fortress.
The last military occupation of Klis Fortress was by
Axis powers
The Axis powers, originally called the Rome–Berlin Axis and also Rome–Berlin–Tokyo Axis, was the military coalition which initiated World War II and fought against the Allies of World War II, Allies. Its principal members were Nazi Ge ...
during
World War II
World War II or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War II, Allies and the Axis powers. World War II by country, Nearly all of the wo ...
.
Architecture
Klis Fortress is one of the most valuable surviving examples of defensive
architecture
Architecture is the art and technique of designing and building, as distinguished from the skills associated with construction. It is both the process and the product of sketching, conceiving, planning, designing, and construction, constructi ...
in Dalmatia.
The fortress is a remarkably comprehensive structure with three long rectangular defensive lines, consisting of three
defensive stone walls, which surround a central strongpoint, the "''Položaj maggiore''" at its eastern, highest end.
"''Položaj maggiore''" or ''"Grand position"'' is a mixed Croatian-Italian term, dating from the time when Leonardo Foscolo captured the fortress for the Venetians in 1648.
At that time, a village started to spread below the ramparts.
The structures of the fortress are mostly irregular, as they were constructed to suit the natural topography.
Several small towers top the hills around Klis, built by the Turks to keep the fortress under surveillance.
Fortress outskirts
Klis Fortress rises on a bare cliff divided into two parts.
The first, lower part is on the west, out topped by Mount Greben from the north.
The second, higher part is on the east, and includes the Tower "Oprah", whose name most likely refers to a specific part in the defense.
In this section, which was not topped by any side, was located the flat of the
Commander
Commander (commonly abbreviated as Cmdr.) is a common naval officer rank as well as a job title in many army, armies. Commander is also used as a rank or title in other formal organizations, including several police forces. In several countri ...
.
The only entrance into the fortress is from the western side.
On the southwest side of the fortress, and below it, was a resort (part of the modern village of Klis) called "borgo" or "suburbium", surrounded by double walls with 100–200 towers.
A similar but smaller resort (also part of modern village of Klis) existed below Mount Greben on a plateau called Megdan.
This included
lazaretto
A lazaretto ( ), sometimes lazaret or lazarette ( ), is a quarantine station for maritime travelers. Lazarets can be ships permanently at anchor, isolated islands, or mainland buildings. In some lazarets, postal items were also disinfected, usu ...
es and
quarantine
A quarantine is a restriction on the movement of people, animals, and goods which is intended to prevent the spread of disease or pests. It is often used in connection to disease and illness, preventing the movement of those who may have bee ...
s which were in Turkish times called ''nazanama''.
Many inns for travellers also once existed, which were used for isolation during epidemics.
Thus, the coastal towns, primarily the city of Split, was protected from epidemics that came from Bosnia.
Near the fortress were several sources of drinking water, and the closest was the "
Holy Biblical Magi" whose importance was invaluable during long sieges.
Present appearance
The fortress was built into the south face of a rocky mass, and is barely discernible from the distance as a man-made structure.
The defensive capabilities of the fortress have been tested through history in many
military
A military, also known collectively as armed forces, is a heavily armed, highly organized force primarily intended for warfare. Militaries are typically authorized and maintained by a sovereign state, with their members identifiable by a d ...
operations.
During the centuries of its use, the structure served various armies and has undergone a number of renovations to keep up with the development of arms.
The original appearance of the fortress is no longer known, due to the structural changes undertaken by Croatian nobility, Turks, Venetians and Austrians.
The present day aspect of a mostly
stone
In geology, rock (or stone) is any naturally occurring solid mass or aggregate of minerals or mineraloid matter. It is categorized by the minerals included, its Chemical compound, chemical composition, and the way in which it is formed. Rocks ...
fortress dates back to the restructuring work carried out by the Venetians in the 17th century.
[Foster (2004), p. 215.]
First defensive line
Many buildings of the Klis Fortress, which are from 17th through 19th centuries, are partially or entirely preserved.
The Fortress actually consists of three parts, enclosed by walls with separate entrances.
The first main entrance was built by the Austrians in the early 19th century, on the place of an earlier Venetian entrance.
Left of the entrance is a fortification erected by the Venetians in the early 18th century.
Also, near the main entrance is a "position Avanzato" built in 1648, which was repeatedly renewed afterwards.
On the ground floor of the fortification is a narrow over-vaulted corridor, which is called a casemate.
Second defensive line

The second entrance which was significantly damaged in the siege of 1648, leads to the former medieval part of the fortress previously ruled by a Croatian nobility.
After 1648, Venetians fully restored the second entrance, but its present appearance was made by the Austrians during the early 19th century.
Along the northern wall near the second entrance is fortress-tower called "Oprah", the most important medieval fortification of the western part of the fortress.
It was mentioned for the first time in 1355, but later the Venetians made the lower crown on it.
Nearby the entrance are artillery barracks, built by the Austrians in the first half of the 19th century.
In 1931 its upper floor was ruined, so now only the ground floor remains.
Third defensive line

The third entrance leads to the former medieval part built in the early Middle Ages.
The Venetians renewed it several times after conquest in 1648, and the last upgrade was in 1763.
Within this part of the fortress is the side tower, built during the 18th century, and completed in 1763.
Following is a repository of weapons built in the mid-17th century and old powder magazine from the 18th century.
The "House of Dux", later called governor's residence, was rebuilt in the mid-17th century on the foundations of the oldest buildings from the period of the Croatian kings.
Austrians repaired this building, and there were placed commandments unity of the fortress and Engineering.
On the top point of the fortress was a "new gunpowder storage", built in the early 19th century.
The oldest remaining building with the
dome
A dome () is an architectural element similar to the hollow upper half of a sphere. There is significant overlap with the term cupola, which may also refer to a dome or a structure on top of a dome. The precise definition of a dome has been a m ...
is a former square-shaped Turkish
mosque
A mosque ( ), also called a masjid ( ), is a place of worship for Muslims. The term usually refers to a covered building, but can be any place where Salah, Islamic prayers are performed; such as an outdoor courtyard.
Originally, mosques were si ...
, which has been converted into a Catholic church in the meantime. There used to be three altars, dedicated to St. Vid, Virgin Mary and St. Barbara, but today the church has no inventory.
The church contains a Baroque stone sink from the 17th century, which served as a baptistery, which has engraved on it the year of 1658.
West of the church is the bastion of Bembo, the largest artillery position in the third defense line and in the whole fortress.
It has wide holes for guns, and was built in the mid-17th century on the site of former Kružić's tower, and the defensive positions of Speranza.
Present day
The Klis Fortress has been developed as a visitor attraction by the "Kliški uskoci"
re-enactment association in Klis with the aid of the conservation department of the
Ministry of Culture Ministry of Culture may refer to:
* Ministry of Tourism, Cultural Affairs, Youth and Sports (Albania)
* Ministry of Culture (Algeria)
* Ministry of Culture (Argentina)
* Minister for the Arts (Australia)
* Ministry of Culture (Azerbaijan)Ministry o ...
in Split.
Visitors to the historic military structure can see an array of arms, armor, and traditional uniforms in a building which was formerly an Austrian armory.
Klis is remembered in a Croatian
byword based on the resistance of Klis and the strength of its people: ''It is difficult for Klis because it is on the rock and it is difficult for the rock because Klis is on it''.
In popular culture
The fortress was used in a 1972 historical film ''
Eagle in a Cage'', portraying
Saint Helena
Saint Helena (, ) is one of the three constituent parts of Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha, a remote British overseas territory.
Saint Helena is a volcanic and tropical island, located in the South Atlantic Ocean, some 1,874 km ...
. Klis was also used as a location for the fictional city of
Meereen in the
HBO
Home Box Office (HBO) is an American pay television service, which is the flagship property of namesake parent-subsidiary Home Box Office, Inc., itself a unit owned by Warner Bros. Discovery. The overall Home Box Office business unit is based a ...
series ''
Game of Thrones
''Game of Thrones'' is an American Fantasy television, fantasy Drama (film and television), drama television series created by David Benioff and for HBO. It is an adaptation of ''A Song of Ice and Fire'', a series of high fantasy novels by ...
''.
Gallery
"Kliški uskoci" re-enactment 1.jpg, "Kliški uskoci" re-enactment
"Kliški uskoci" re-enactment 2.jpg, Re-enactment of Croatians battling the Ottomans
Klis - Game of Thrones 1.jpg, ''Game of Thrones
''Game of Thrones'' is an American Fantasy television, fantasy Drama (film and television), drama television series created by David Benioff and for HBO. It is an adaptation of ''A Song of Ice and Fire'', a series of high fantasy novels by ...
'' film set
File:Klis - Game of Thrones 2.jpg, Another ''Game of Thrones'' film set, 2013
Fortress of Klis 08 - Cannon.jpg, Cannon in the fortress
HR-Festung-Klis-Kirche-2.jpg, The Church of St. Vid located in the fortress
file:HR-Festung-Klis-04.jpg, North-side view
File:Tvrđava Klis 3.jpg, Stairs
See also
*
List of castles in Croatia
*
List of rulers of Croatia
This is a complete list of dukes and kings of Croatia () under domestic ethnic and elected dynasties during the Duchy of Croatia (until 925), the Kingdom of Croatia (925–1102), the Kingdom of Croatia and Dalmatia (1102–1526 in union with K ...
*
Timeline of Croatian history
*
Siege of Klis
*
Battle of Klis (1596)
Notes
References
Bibliography
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Further reading
*
Historical Unit Kliški uskoci – History of Klis and Fortress
External links
*
Webcam from top of the Klis fortress{{Castles in Croatia
Castles in Croatia
Buildings and structures in Split-Dalmatia County
History of Dalmatia
Historic sites in Croatia
Medieval architecture
Military history of the Kingdom of Croatia
Tourist attractions in Split-Dalmatia County