Klingon Grammar

The grammar of the Klingon language was created by Marc Okrand for the ''Star Trek'' franchise. He first described it in his book ''The Klingon Dictionary''. It is a nominative–accusative, primarily suffixing agglutinative language, and has an object–verb–subject word order. The Klingon language has a number of unusual grammatical features, as it was designed to sound and seem alien, but it has an extremely regular morphology.

Word order

Klingon follows an object–verb–subject word order. Adverbs usually go at the beginning of the sentenceOkrand 1992, p.56. Note exception neH ''only, merely'' from p.56 and jayʼ (swear word) from p.177. and prepositional phrases go before the object.

Sentences can be treated as objects, and the word ʼeʼ is placed after the sentence. ʼeʼ is treated as the object of the next sentence. The adverbs, indirect objects and locatives of the latter sentence go after the subject, but before the ʼeʼ

Nouns

Klingon has three noun classes. The first one is living beings with an innate capacity to use language. The second one is body parts (not the body itself) and the third is all other nouns.Okrand 1992, p.22 Klingon has no articles, so the word raS ''table'' can mean ''a'' table or ''the'' table. The difference between the two is inferred from context.

Suffixes

There are five types of noun suffixes. A word cannot have two suffixes of the same type.Okrand 1992, p.21 The suffixes are ordered based on type number; a type 2 suffix goes before a type 3 suffix, but after a type 1 suffix. In the following example, all five suffix types are used in the correct order.

Type 1 (size, affection)

This type has three suffixes:

* The augmentative suffix-ʼaʼ,

* The diminutive suffix -Hom,

* and the endearment suffix -oy.

:* If the noun to which the endearment suffix is added ends with a vowel, a glottal stop is inserted between them:

Type 2 (plurals)

This type of suffix forms plurals. There are three suffixes, one for each noun class.

* The suffix -puʼ is for beings capable of using language.

*The suffix -Duʼ is for body parts,

*The suffix -mey is used for all other nouns.

:*When -mey is used for nouns that would normally take -puʼ or -Duʼ, it carries the connotation of being all over the place.

A noun does not require a plural suffix if a pronoun, pronominal prefix, or context serves to indicate that it is plural, or if it is being used in conjunction with a number.Okrand 1992, p.55

; Duypuʼ chaH or Duy chaH
: ''They are emissaries.''
; raSmey DIghor or raS DIghor
: ''We broke the tables.''

Type 3 (accuracy)

This type of suffix indicates the speaker's opinion of the applicability of the noun. There are three suffixes:

* The suffix -qoq indicates that the speaker thinks what they are referencing is not actually represented by the noun.

* The dubitative suffix -Hey indicates the speaker is not entirely sure if the object they are referencing is represented by the noun.

*The suffix -naʼ indicates that the speaker is entirely sure that the object is represented accurately by the noun.Okrand 1992, p.25

Type 4 (possession, determiners)

This type of suffix indicates possession or specifies which object is referred to. It contains twelve suffixes.

There are ten possession suffixes, indicating who is the possessor of the object, which may be a person. For first- and second-person possessors, there are different forms depending on whether the "object" is a being capable of using language.

There are also two determiner suffixes:
* -vam ''this'' indicates an object that is nearby or that is being discussed
* -vetlh ''that'' indicates an object that is not nearby or that had previously been discussed

Examples:
* Non-language-user possessives:

* Language-user possessives:

*Determiners:

Type 5 (syntactic role)

This type of suffix serves a syntactic role in the sentence. It contains five suffixes.

* The locative suffix -Daq indicates the action of the sentence is taking place in, at or on the noun.Okrand 1992, p.27 With certain verbs, it indicates motion towards the noun.

* The ablative suffix -voʼ indicates that the action is taking place away from the noun. Again, with certain verbs, it indicates motion away from the noun.

* The causal suffix -moʼ indicates that the action is occurring because of the noun.

* The dative/benefactive suffix -vaD indicates the indirect object, and/or the noun for which the action has been done.

* The topicalizing suffix -ʼeʼ indicates the topic of the sentence or emphasises the noun in the phrase, and also marks the head noun of a relative clause.

Verbs

Klingon verbs mark for aspect but not for tense, which is indicated where necessary by context and by time adverbs. Prefixes mark subject and object. There are ten types of suffix, and as with nouns, a verb can have no more than one suffix of any type. (The tenth type, called ''rovers'', are an exception.) Again as with nouns, the types of suffix must appear in a strict order, indicated by their type number: a type 2 suffix goes before a type 3 suffix, but after a type 1 suffix. A rover suffix can go between any of them.Okrand 1992, p.44

Unlike English, there is no infinitive.Okrand 1992, p.33 The presentation of the verb stem as an infinitive in this article's example sentences is just to show the individual morphemes.

Prefixes

Klingon verb prefixes mark both the subject and the object.

* Expressed with the type-5 verb suffix -luʼ

Prefixes must be present even if the nouns or pronouns they reference are declared explicitly. In certain cases with a third person object, a first or second person indirect object can be omitted by using the first and second person object prefixes instead. This is known as the prefix trick.

Examples:
* No object:

* Subject and object:

* Imperative:

Suffixes

Type 1 (reflexive/reciprocal)

This type of suffix forms reflexive verbs. There are two suffixes.

* The reflexive suffix -ʼegh indicates that the individual subject(s) does/do the action to her/him/itself/themselves.

* The reciprocal suffix -chuq indicates that the individual subjects do the action to each other.Okrand 1992, p.36 Intransitive verbs cannot take this suffix.

Type 2 (volition/necessity)

This type of suffix deals with the subject's volition. There are five suffixes.

* The suffix -nIS indicates that the subject is required to or has the necessity to complete the action.

* The suffix -qang indicates that the subject is willing to perform the action.

* The suffix -rup indicates the subject is prepared to complete the action.

*The suffix -beH indicates that the subject has been set up to complete the action. -beH is used with devices, whereas -rup is used with beings.

* The suffix -vIp indicates that the subject is afraid to do the action.Okrand 1992, p.37

Type 3 ( inceptive/

inchoative)

This type of suffix describes the action of the verb. There are two suffixes.

* The suffix -choH indicates a change of state to that indicated by the verb:

* The suffix -qaʼ indicates the action had been stopped, but is now resuming, or that the action is being performed again.

Type 4 (causative)

There is only one suffix in this category, the causative suffix -moH. This suffix indicates that the subject is causing something to happen. If the verb to which it is added is transitive, the object becomes the indirect object. Many Klingon words are derived this way. For example, the verb ''clean'' (SayʼmoH) is derived from the verb ''be clean'' (Sayʼ).Okrand 1992, p.38

Intransitive verb:

: Causative form:

Transitive verb:

: Causative form:

Type 5 (undefined subject; capability)

There are two unrelated suffixes in this group. The suffix -luʼ indicates an undefined subject. The verb prefixes that are normally used for first or second person ''subject'' with third person singular ''object'' are used to indicate first or second person ''object''. The suffix indicates that the subject is capable of performing the action of the verb.

Examples:
* -luʼ without prefix:

: much bej
: ''He/she watches the presentation''

* -luʼ with prefix:

: vItlhaʼ
: ''I chase it''

* -laH:

Type 6 (perfection; uncertainty)

This type indicates the speaker's opinion of the action of the verb. There are four suffixes.

* The suffix -chuʼ indicates that the speaker considers the action is done in the best possible manner.

* The suffix -bej indicates that the speaker is completely sure the action is occurring.

*The dubitative suffix -lawʼ indicates that the speaker thinks the action is occurring, but is not sure.

* The suffix -baʼ indicates that the speaker thinks that it is obvious that the action is occurring.Okrand 1992, p.175

Type 7 (aspect)

This type indicates the verb's aspect. There are four Type 7 suffixes.

Note that aspect is different from tense and independent of it. A "completed" event (perfective aspect, -puʼ or -taʼ) can just as easily be set before, during, or after the time of description (past, present, or future tense), or unspecified for tense. For simplicity, this section says "is completed", not "was, is, or will be completed." (Do not confuse perfective aspect with "perfectly done".)

* The perfective suffix -puʼ indicates that, in the time context of the sentence, the action is completed.

* The suffix -taʼ also indicates that the action is completed, and further specifies that it was done on purpose.

* The suffix -taH indicates that the verb is occurring continuously.

*The suffix -lIʼ indicates that the verb is occurring continuously, but that it has a definite ending point.Okrand 1992, p.42

The perfective aspect can also be indicated by the use of the verb form rIntaH after the main verb. This carries the connotation of irreversibility.
: ghorluʼ rIntaH ''It has been broken (and it cannot be mended)''

Type 8 (honorific)

There is only one suffix in this group, the honorific suffix -neS. It is used when addressing any type of superior, be it social, political, or military, and only when being very polite or having high regard for that person. It is never required.Okrand 1992, p.43
: -neS:

Type 9 (syntactic)

Eleven suffixes specify syntactic roles in the sentence.

= Nominalizers

=
Two suffixes form specific types of noun from a verb.

* The suffix -wIʼ is used to form words for persons and things that do something, much as English nouns of the form ''X-er'' can mean either "person who does X" (''listener, baker'') or "thing that does X" (''screwdriver, sprinkler'').

* The suffix -ghach is used as a nominalizer for verbs ending in suffixes, which otherwise are unable to be nominalized. This suffix is usually used with other suffixes and is rarely found alone with the verb stem.

= Modals

=
These two suffixes inflect the verb in specific grammatical moods.
* The interrogative suffix -ʼaʼ is used to form yes–no questions.

*The optative suffix -jaj is used to indicate a wish or desire of the speaker.

= Subordinators

=
The following seven suffixes are used to form subordinate clauses. A subordinate clause may go after or before the clause it modifies.

''Time''
* The suffix -paʼ indicates that the event described in the main clause occurs chronologically before the event of this clause.
: jItlheDpaʼ, HIboQ ''Before I depart, assist me''
: (jItlheD ''I depart'', HIboQ ''assist me'')
*The suffix -vIS indicates that the main clause is occurring at the same time as this clause. It is always used in conjunction with the type-7 suffix continuous suffix -taH.
: lumtaHvIS, pagh taʼ ''He accomplishes nothing while he procrastinates''
: (lum ''procrastinate'', taʼ ''accomplish'', pagh ''nothing'')
* The suffix -DIʼ indicates that the event of the main clause occurs immediately after the event of this clause is completed.
: jImej chocholDIʼ ''As soon as you approach me, I leave''
: (jImej ''I leave'', chochol ''you approach me'')

''Cause and effect''
* The suffix -chugh is used to form conditionals.
: DaSamlaHchugh, DaSuqlaH ''If you can find it, you can take it''
: (DaSamlaH ''you can find it'', DaSuqlaH ''you can acquire (take) it'')
* The suffix -moʼ indicates the main clause is occurring because of this clause.
:bIʼIlmoʼ, qavoq ''Because you are sincere, I trust you''
:(bIʼIl ''you are sincere'', qavoq ''I trust you'')

''(Relative and purpose clauses)''
* The suffix -bogh is used in relative clauses. Their usage is covered in the relative clauses section.
* The suffix -meH is used in purpose clauses. Their usage is covered in the purpose clauses section.

Rovers

This type of suffix is known as a lengwIʼ in Klingon, which is translated as ''rover'' (leng ''wander'' + wIʼ). There are four rovers. These suffixes have no defined position, and can go after the verb stem or after any suffix – even another rover – except after a type-9 suffix or where the result would be meaningless. They modify whatever directly precedes them.

* The rover suffix -beʼ negates what precedes it but in the imperative mood -Qoʼ is used.

* The rover suffix -Qoʼ negates what precedes it in the imperative mood. In the indicative mood it indicates refusal by the subject. It can only be used between verb suffixes of Type 8 and Type 9.Okrand 1992, p.47

* The rover suffix -quʼ emphasises what precedes it.

*The rover suffix -Haʼ reverses what precedes it; that is, it indicates that the opposite of what precedes it is being done, or that the action is being undone. If used on a verb that cannot be undone and has no meaningful opposite, it means to perform the action wrongly, not in the proper way, somewhat like the English prefix ''mis-'' in ''misspeak, mistype, misspell'', etc. Unlike the other rovers, it can be placed only just after the stem; its classification in the rover category is attributed to the insistence of fictional Klingon grammarians.Okrand 1992, p.49

The position of the rover suffixes affects the meaning of the word. Contrast
: luSoplaH ''They are able to eat it''
: luSoplaHbeʼ ''They are not able to eat it''
: luSopbeʼlaH ''They are able to not eat it''
:: (In context, possibly equivalent to ''They can refuse to eat it'')
: luSopbeʼlaHbeʼ ''They are not able to not eat it''
:: (In context, possibly equivalent to ''They cannot refuse to eat it'')

Pronouns and copula

Klingon has no verb that corresponds to the verb ''to be''; the concept is expressed using a different grammatical construction. Pronouns can be used as verbs that act as the pronoun plus the verb to be. The pronoun can take verb suffixes, which then modify the pronoun like any other verb. A third-person subject that is not a pronoun must go after the pronoun-verb and carry the type-5 noun suffix -ʼeʼOkrand 1992, p.68

Examples:
* qonwI' tlhIH ''You are composers''
* ghojwIʼ ghaH HaDwIʼʼeʼ ''A studier is a learner''

Adjectives

Klingon does not have adjectives as a distinct part of speech. Instead, many intransitive verbs can be used as adjectives, in which case they follow the noun they modify.
Contrast (wep ''coat'', and yIQ ''be wet'')
: wep yIQ
: ''the wet coat''
with
: yIQ wep.
: ''The coat is wet.''

In this construction, the only verbal suffixes allowed are rover suffixes such as -quʼ and -Haʼ.
Type-5 ''noun'' suffixes that would normally be attached to the noun are instead attached to the adjectival verb:
; paʼDaq
: ''in the room''
; paʼ tInDaq
: ''in the big room'' (tIn ''big'')

Adverbs

Adverbs are usually placed at the beginning of the sentence, but time adverbs go before other adverbs.

Adverbs can take the rover suffix -Haʼ to denote the opposite adverbial.

; Doʼ
: ''fortunately''
; DoʼHaʼ
: ''unfortunately''

Conjunctions

Klingon has seven conjunctions, and they are different for nouns and for sentences. The noun conjunctions are je for a logical conjunction, joq for a logical disjunction and ghap for an exclusive disjunction. Noun conjunctions go after the nouns they connect. Sentence conjunctions are ʼej for a logical conjunction, qoj for a logical disjunction and pagh for an exclusive disjunction. ʼach (or ʼa) ''but'' is used to contrast sentences.

Clauses

Relative clauses

In a relative clause, the verb has the type-9 verb suffix -bogh added to it.Okrand 1992, p.64 The order of the words in relative clauses remains the same as in regular clauses, but the head noun may optionally get the type-5 suffix -ʼeʼ added.

Since there is already a type-5 noun suffix marking the head noun, nothing other than the subject or the object can be marked as head noun. Two sentences are formed instead to form the same idea. Relative clauses can have nouns with type 5 suffixes as modifiers, but it can be ambiguous as they can be misinterpreted as being part of the main sentence.

Purpose clauses

A purpose clause expresses the reason or goal of the action of the main clause. If it is modifying a noun it states the purpose of the noun. A purpose clause always goes before the clause or noun it modifies. This is the cause of some grammatical ambiguity in Klingon, as a -meH modifying a noun at the beginning of a sentence can be misinterpreted as modifying the entire sentence. This can be resolved in writing with punctuation.

* -meH with sentence:

* -meH with nouns:

Comparatives

In this section, noun phrases are indicated by the abbreviation ''NP'', and adjectives by ''A''.

Klingon comparatives mainly rely on adjectives like lawʼ (''to be many''), puS (''to be few''), rap (''to be the same''), and rur (''to resemble, to be like'') to contrast the nouns. However, many (but not all) of the comparatives have unusual word orders that don't parse as regular Klingon sentences.

* The main Klingon comparative structure is ''NP₁ A lawʼ NP₂ A puS''.
The general meaning of this construction is ''"NP₁'' is more ''A'' than ''NP₂"''.

* The structure ''NP₁ A lawʼ Hoch A puS'' is used to form superlatives, i.e.
"NP₁ has the most of quality A (= has more of quality A than anything/one else has)".
(Hoch = ''all, everyone, everything'')

* The inverse structure, ''Hoch A lawʼ NP₁ A puS'' is used to indicate
"NP₁ has the least of quality A".

* The structure ''A NP₁; NP₂ rur'' is used to form similes:
"NP₁ is A; he/she/it resembles NP₂".

Questions

A yes–no question in Klingon can be formed by adding the suffix to the regular form. The word for yes is HISlaH or HIjaʼ and the word for no is ghobeʼ. Interrogative pronouns go where the answer would normally go, and don't reorder the sentence. Interrogative adverbs go at the beginning of the sentence.

Numbers

Klingon uses a base-10 system to count numbers. To form a multiple of 10, 100, 1 000, 1 000 000, the word for the multiple of ten is suffixed to the digit. For example, chorghmaH ''eighty'' is a combination of the word chorgh ''eight'' and the number forming suffix ''ten''.

Larger powers go before smaller powers: chorghmaH Soch is ''eight-ten seven''. The number suffix is used to form ordinal numbers, and the number suffix indicates how many times an action has been repeated: loSDIch ''fourth'', waʼmaH chaʼlogh ''twelve times''.Okrand 1992, p.53-55

Notes

Sources

*
* Okrand, Marc. ''paq'batlh''. uitgeverij. 2011.

References

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