The Kiranti languages are a major family of

Sino-Tibetan languages Sino-Tibetan (also referred to as Trans-Himalayan) is a family of more than 400 languages, second only to Indo-European in number of native speakers. Around 1.4 billion people speak a Sino-Tibetan language. The vast majority of these are the 1.3 ...

spoken in

Nepal Nepal, officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal, is a landlocked country in South Asia. It is mainly situated in the Himalayas, but also includes parts of the Indo-Gangetic Plain. It borders the Tibet Autonomous Region of China Ch ...

and

India India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, seventh-largest country by area; the List of countries by population (United Nations), most populous country since ...

(notably

Sikkim Sikkim ( ; ) is a States and union territories of India, state in northeastern India. It borders the Tibet Autonomous Region of China in the north and northeast, Bhutan in the east, Koshi Province of Nepal in the west, and West Bengal in the ...

Darjeeling Darjeeling (, , ) is a city in the northernmost region of the States and union territories of India, Indian state of West Bengal. Located in the Eastern Himalayas, it has an average elevation of . To the west of Darjeeling lies the Koshi Pr ...

Kalimpong Kalimpong is a town and the headquarters of an eponymous district in the Indian state of West Bengal. It is located at an average elevation of . The town is the headquarters of the Kalimpong district. The region comes under Gorkhaland Territo ...

, and

Bhutan Bhutan, officially the Kingdom of Bhutan, is a landlocked country in South Asia, in the Eastern Himalayas between China to the north and northwest and India to the south and southeast. With a population of over 727,145 and a territory of , ...

) by the

Kirati people The Kirati people, also spelled as Kirat or Kirant or Kiranti, are Tibeto-Burman ethnolinguistic groups living in the Himalayas, mostly the Eastern Himalaya extending eastward from Nepal to North East India (predominantly in the Indian state o ...

External relationships

George van Driem George "Sjors" van Driem (born 1957) is a Dutch professor emeritus of linguistics at the University of Bern. He studied East Asian languages and is known for the father tongue hypothesis. Education * Leiden University, 1983–1987 (PhD, ''A Gra ...

had formerly proposed that the Kiranti languages were part of a Mahakiranti family, although specialists are not completely certain of either the existence of a Kiranti subgroup or its precise membership. LaPolla (2003), though, proposes that Kiranti may be part of a larger "

Rung Rung may refer to: * Rung (band), a Pakistan band * ''Rung'' (album), an album by Hadiqa Kiyani * Rung languages, a proposed group of Tibeto-Burman languages * Rung, an ethnic group of people inhabiting the Pithoragarh district of Uttarakhand, ...

" group.

Classification

There are about two dozen Kiranti languages. Among the better known are

Limbu Limbu may refer to: * Limbu people, an indigenous tribe living in Nepal, Sikkim (India) and Bhutan ** Limbu language, their Sino-Tibetan language *** Limbu script **** Limbu (Unicode block) * Rambahadur Limbu Rambahadur Limbu, (; 8 July 1939 � ...

Sunuwar The Sunuwar or Koinch are a Tibeto-Burman ethnic group. ( Nepali:सुनुवार जाति, ''Sunuwār Jāti'') a Kirati tribe native to Nepal, parts of India (West Bengal and Sikkim) and southern Bhutan. They speak the Sunuwar languag ...

Bantawa The Bantawa Language (also referred to as An Yüng, Bantaba, Bantawa Dum, Bantawa Yong, Bantawa Yüng, Bontawa, Kirawa Yüng), is a Kiranti language spoken in the eastern Himalayan hills of eastern Nepal by Kirati Bantawa ethnic groups. They use ...

, Chamling, Khaling, Bahing,

Yakkha Yakkha may refer to: * Yakkha people, an ethnic group of South Asia * Yakkha language, a Sino-Tibetan language * Yaksha The Yakshas (, , ) in Mythology are a broad class of nature spirits, usually benevolent, but sometimes mischievous or ca ...

, Wayu, Dungmali,

Lohorung Lohorung may be: * Lohorung people, in Nepal * Lohorung language, their Sino-Tibetan language {{dab ...

, and

Kulung Kulung may refer to: * Kulung people, an ethnic group of Nepal * Kulung language (Nepal) Kulung (autonym: ''Kulu riŋ'', ulu rɪŋ is one of the Kiranti languages. It is spoken by an estimated 33,000 people. Van Driem (2001) includes Chukwa as ...

. Kiranti verbs are not easily segmentable, due in large part to the presence of

portmanteau In linguistics, a blend—also known as a blend word, lexical blend, or portmanteau—is a word formed by combining the meanings, and parts of the sounds, of two or more words together.

morpheme A morpheme is any of the smallest meaningful constituents within a linguistic expression and particularly within a word. Many words are themselves standalone morphemes, while other words contain multiple morphemes; in linguistic terminology, this ...

s, crowded

affix In linguistics, an affix is a morpheme that is attached to a word stem to form a new word or word form. The main two categories are Morphological derivation, derivational and inflectional affixes. Derivational affixes, such as ''un-'', ''-ation' ...

strings, and extensive (and often nonintuitive)

allomorph In linguistics, an allomorph is a variant phonetic form of a morpheme, or in other words, a unit of meaning that varies in sound and spelling without changing the meaning. The term ''allomorph'' describes the realization of phonological variatio ...

y. Thus their relationship to each other has been a subject of debate. Overall, Kiranti languages are classified: * Eastern Kiranti **

Limbu language Limbu (Limbu: , ''yakthuṅ pan'') is a Sino-Tibetan language spoken by the Limbu people of Nepal and Northeastern India (particularly West Bengal, Sikkim, Assam and Nagaland) as well as expatriate communities in Bhutan. The Limbu refer to the ...

****

Yakkha language Yakkha (also erroneously spelled as Yakha) is a language spoken in parts of Nepal, Darjeeling district and Sikkim. The Yakkha-speaking villages are located to the East of the Arun river, in the southern part of the Sankhuwasabha district and in t ...

****

Belhare language Belhare (), also known as Athpariya II (not to be confused with Athpariya I), is a Kiranti language spoken by some 2,000 people living on Belhara Hill, at the southern foothills of the Himalayas situated in the Dhankuta District, Koshi Provinc ...

**** Athpare language ****

Chintang language Chintang (Chintang: छिन्ताङ् ''Chintāṅ / Chhintang'') is an eastern Kirati language spoken by 5,000 to 6,000 people in Chhintang VDC and Ahale VDC in Dhankuta District, Province No. 1, Nepal. The language has two dialects, M ...

*****

Yamphu language Yamphu language is a Kirati language spoken by the Kirat Yamphu people, a Kirati people of the Himalayas of Nepal. Tomyang (Chongka) is a recently discovered dialect spoken by only 20 people. Both it and Yamphe are distinct. Southern Yamphu is ...

*****

Lohorung language Lohorung, also spelled Lorung, Lohrung or Loharung, is a Kirati language of eastern Nepal. It has been described by George van Driem. Southern Lorung is also considered to be Southern Yamphu language. These varieties are all closely related. ...

****

Mewahang language Mewahang (Meohang), or Newahang, is a Kiranti languages, Kiranti language spoken in Nepal. The eastern and western dialects are structurally distinct. Distribution and dialects Western Mewahang is spoken in the upper Arun valley west of the Arun ...

** Central Kiranti *** Khambu (Rai) **** Kulung language ****

Nachhiring language Nachhiring is a Kirati language spoken mostly in the eastern hills of Nepal. It not merges into Kulung in the north and Sampang in the south. A follower of the Nachiring sub-caste Dapsnu (Samei) of Kirat Nachiring sub-caste (Pacha) Kirat Nachiri ...

****

Sampang language Sampang language is a subgroup of Central Kiranti languages. Geographical distribution Sampang is spoken in the following locations of Nepal (''Ethnologue''). *Khotang District, Koshi Province (Khotang dialect): Tap Khola river villages, Baspa ...

****

Saam language Saam, ''Saama Kha'', is a nearly extinct Kiranti language spoken in Nepal. The name ''Saam'' is ambiguous, and shared with neighboring languages. Chukwa may be Saam if it is not Kulung. Geographical distribution Saam is spoken in the followi ...

****

Bantawa language The Bantawa Language (also referred to as An Yüng, Bantaba, Bantawa Dum, Bantawa Yong, Bantawa Yüng, Bontawa, Kirawa Yüng), is a Kiranti language spoken in the eastern Himalayan hills of eastern Nepal by Kirati Bantawa ethnic groups. They us ...

**** Puma language ****

Chamling language Chamling is one of the Kirati languages spoken by the Chamling people, a subgroup of the Kirat (Horsungchha, Dikhalichha, Mulihachha, Ditumachha, Mansungcha, Lipuhochha, Malekungchha, Maidhung, Kherasung, Rakhomi, Bhijaichha, Hodorichha, Yayo ...

****

Dungmali language Dungmali, or Dungmali-Bantawa, is a Kiranti language spoken in Nepal. It is largely cognate with Bantawa language, but differs grammatically and phonologically. Locations Dungmali is spoken in eastern Bhojpur District, Koshi Province, in Thul ...

***

Thulung language Thulung or Thulung lwa () is a Sino-Tibetan Kirati languages or Thulung language spoken in parts of Nepal and Sikkim Sikkim ( ; ) is a States and union territories of India, state in northeastern India. It borders the Tibet Autonomou ...

(perhaps a primary branch of Kiranti Rai) *** Chaurasiya ****

Wambule language Wambule (; ) is a Kiranti language language spoken by the Wambule Rai, one of the Rai groups belonging to the Kiranti (किरान्ती) ethnolinguistic family of eastern Nepal. Wambule is spoken by more than 5000 people living around th ...

*** Upper Dudhkosi River: ****

Khaling language Khaling (kʰɛ̂l brâː ख्या:ल् ब्रा:) is a Kiranti language spoken in Solukhumbu district, Nepal and Sikkim, Darjeeling, and Kalimpong in India. It is one of the few Kiranti languages with tonal contrasts, which are of sec ...

**** Dumi language **** Koi language ****

Bahing language Bahing is one of the ethnicities present in Nepal which consist of the following ancestors: Paiwa, Dungmowa, Rukhusalu, Waripsawa, Timriwa, Dhimriwa, Nayango, Dhayango, Khaliwa/Khaluwa, Rendukpa/Rendu, and Rungbu. These ancestors spoke the Bahin ...

*** Western Kiranti ****

Sunuwar language Sunuwar, or Koinch (; ; other spellings are Koinch and Koincha), is a Kiranti language of the Sino-Tibetan language family spoken in Nepal and India by the Sunuwar people. It was first comprehensively attested by the Himalayan Languages Pro ...

**** Hayu language **** Jerung language ''Ethnologue'' adds Tilung language to Western Kiranti, based on Opgenort (2011).

Opgenort (2005)

Opgenort (2005) classifies the Kiranti languages as follows, and recognizes a basic east-west division within Kiranti. * Kiranti ** ''Western'' ***

Hayu The Hayus () are a member of the Kirat tribe speaking their own language, Wayu or Hayu. Little is known about them. They are Hindus by religion. According to the 2001 Nepal census, there are 1821 Hayu in the country, of which 70.29% were Hind ...

*** **** Thulung **** ***** Bahing,

*****

Jero Jerome Charles White Jr. (born September 4, 1981), better known by his stage name , is an American enka singer of African-American and Japanese descent who is the first black enka singer in Japanese music history. In 2018, Jero announced that h ...

, Wambule ** ''Central'' *** Khaling, Dumi **** *****

***** Chamling,

** ''Eastern'' **** Yamphu,

Gerber & Grollmann (2018)

Historical linguists, as early as 2012, do not consider Kiranti to be a coherent group, but rather a

paraphyletic Paraphyly is a taxonomic term describing a grouping that consists of the grouping's last common ancestor and some but not all of its descendant lineages. The grouping is said to be paraphyletic ''with respect to'' the excluded subgroups. In co ...

one due to lack of

shared innovation In linguistics, the comparative method is a technique for studying the development of languages by performing a feature-by-feature comparison of two or more languages with common descent from a shared ancestor and then extrapolating backwards ...

s. Gerber & Grollmann (2018) presented additional evidence supporting the paraphyletic nature of Kiranti. A Central-Eastern Kiranti group is considered to be valid by Gerber & Grollmann (2018), but they consider "Western Kiranti" unclassified within Trans-Himalayan languages. * Central-Eastern Kiranti ** Lhokpu,

Dhimal The Dhimal or Dhemal () are ethnic group residing in the eastern Terai of Nepal and West Bengal of India. They are a Sino-Tibetan-speaking ethnic group of the eastern Terai. They mainly reside in Morang and Jhapa districts of Nepal and Darjee ...

, Toto ** Central Kiranti ** Upper Arun ** Greater Yakkha-

Independent branches (formerly part of "Western Kiranti") that are unclassified within Trans-Himalayan (Sino-Tibetan): * Dumi- Khaling * Chaurasiya-Northwest: Wambule, Bahing,

; ?

* Thulung- Tilung-

Kohi KOHI (1600 AM) is a radio station in St. Helens, north of Portland, Oregon, on U.S. Route 30. It serves the cities of St. Helens, Scappoose, Salmon Creek, La Center, Woodland, and Kalama, the last four of which are located in Washington. T ...

Grollmann (2023) identifies a ''Khambu'' subgroup that consists of three languages,

, Nachiring, and Sampang. Camling may also be a Khambu language.Grollmann, Selin. 2023. ''Remarks on the Khambu subgroup of Kiranti''. 26th Himalayan Languages Symposium, 4-6 September 2023. Paris: INALCO.

Sound changes

Sound change In historical linguistics, a sound change is a change in the pronunciation of a language. A sound change can involve the replacement of one speech sound (or, more generally, one phonetic feature value) by a different one (called phonetic chan ...

s defining each subgroup (Gerber & Grollmann 2018): * Central-Eastern Kiranti (*voiceless > preglottalised; *voiced > voiceless; *ʔk > kʰ; *ʔc > cʰ) ** Lhokpu, Dhimal, Toto ** Central Kiranti (*ʔp > b; *ʔt > d) ** Upper Arun (*ʔp > b; *ʔt > d; *r > j) ** Greater Yakkha-Limbu (*ʔp > pʰ; *ʔt > tʰ; *r > j) Independent branches (formerly part of "Western Kiranti") that are unclassified within Trans-Himalayan (Sino-Tibetan): * Dumi-Khaling (innovative verbal dual marker -i) * Chaurasiya-Northwest (*kʷ > ʔw ~ ʔb) ** Wambule, Bahing, Sunuwar; ? Jero; ? Hayu * Thulung-Tilung-Kohi (*p > t; *b > d) The Khambu branch is defined by the following sound changes. * *ŋ > zero, *k > zero in final syllabic position, and also vowel change to o, ʌ, ə before the precending vowel *a * Palatalization of *t and *n before /i/ in final syllabic position * *eŋ > aŋ

Reconstruction

Research on proto-Kiranti includes work on phonology and comparative morphology by

, reconstructions by Michailovsky (1991) and

Sergei Starostin Sergei Anatolyevich Starostin (; March 24, 1953 – September 30, 2005) was a Russian historical linguistics, historical linguist and philology, philologist, perhaps best known for his reconstructions of hypothetical proto-languages, including hi ...

1994. Michailovsky and Starostin differ by the number of stop series reconstructed (three vs four) and the interpretation of the correspondences. Opgenort introduces the reconstruction of preglottalized resonants; his reconstruction is generally based on Starostin's four series system. More recently,

Jacques Jacques or Jacq are believed to originate from the Middle Ages in the historic northwest Brittany region in France, and have since spread around the world over the centuries. To date, there are over one hundred identified noble families related t ...

proposed a reconstruction of proto-Kiranti verb roots based on Michailovsky's system, and analyzes the other initial correspondences (in particular, the series reconstructed as non-aspirated unvoiced stops by Starostin) as due to morphological alternations and inter-Kiranti borrowing. In addition, he presents a preliminary discussion of the reconstruction of stem alternation and stress patterns on the basis of Khaling and Dumi.

Notes

References

* * * Tara Mani Rai (2015). "A Grammar of Koyee" Ph.D. diss. Tribhuvan University. https://www.amazon.com/Grammar-Koyee-Tara-Mani-Rai/dp/3969391121 * * * Reconstructions * Michailovsky, Boyd. 1991.
Big black notebook of Kiranti, proto-Kiranti forms
'. (unpublished ms. contributed to STEDT). * *

External links

Kiranti Database Project
(Jean Robert Opgenort) {{Languages of Nepal Languages of Koshi Province

External relationships

Classification

Opgenort (2005)

Gerber & Grollmann (2018)

Sound changes

Reconstruction

Notes

References

Further reading

External links