The ''khopesh'' ('; also vocalized khepesh) is an Egyptian

sickle A sickle, bagging hook, reaping-hook or grasshook is a single-handed agricultural tool designed with variously curved blades and typically used for harvesting or reaping grain crops, or cutting Succulent plant, succulent forage chiefly for feedi ...

-shaped sword that developed from battle axes. The sword style originated in Western Asia during the

Bronze Age The Bronze Age () was a historical period characterised principally by the use of bronze tools and the development of complex urban societies, as well as the adoption of writing in some areas. The Bronze Age is the middle principal period of ...

and was introduced in the

Second Intermediate Period The Second Intermediate Period dates from 1700 to 1550 BC. It marks a period when ancient Egypt was divided into smaller dynasties for a second time, between the end of the Middle Kingdom and the start of the New Kingdom. The concept of a Secon ...

.Lloyd, Alan B. ''A Companion to Ancient Egypt''. Spalinger, Anothony J. Ch 23. "Military Institutions and Warfare: Pharaonic". Newark, United Kingdom: John Wiley & Sons, 2010.Van De Mieroop, Marc. ''A History of Ancient Egypt''. John Wiley & Sons, 2021. p. 126. The ''khopesh'' became more common in the New Kingdom, and is often depicted with kings in statues and murals.

Etymology

The word ''khopesh'' may have been derived from "leg", as in "leg of beef", because of their similarity in shape. The hieroglyph for ''ḫpš'' ('leg') is found as early as during the time of the Coffin Texts (the

First Intermediate Period The First Intermediate Period, described as a 'dark period' in ancient Egyptian history, spanned approximately 125 years, c. 2181–2055 BC, after the end of the Old Kingdom of Egypt, Old Kingdom. It comprises the seventh Dynasty, Seventh (altho ...

). Coffin Texts: However, on the 196 BC

Rosetta Stone The Rosetta Stone is a stele of granodiorite inscribed with three versions of a Rosetta Stone decree, decree issued in 196 BC during the Ptolemaic dynasty of ancient Egypt, Egypt, on behalf of King Ptolemy V Epiphanes. The top and middle texts ...

, it is referenced as the "sword"

determinative A determinative, also known as a taxogram or semagram, is an ideogram used to mark semantic categories of words in logographic scripts which helps to disambiguate interpretation. They have no direct counterpart in spoken language, though they ...

in a hieroglyph block, with the spelled letters of kh, p, and sh to say:

Description

A typical ''khopesh'' is in length, though smaller examples also exist. The inside curve of the weapon could be used to trap an opponent's arm, or to pull an opponent's shield out of the way. These weapons changed from bronze to iron in the New Kingdom period. The blade is only sharpened on the outside portion of the curved end. Examples have been found with dull edges, most likely indicating they were of ceremonial purpose. The ''khopesh'' evolved from the

epsilon Epsilon (, ; uppercase , lowercase or ; ) is the fifth letter of the Greek alphabet, corresponding phonetically to a mid front unrounded vowel or . In the system of Greek numerals it also has the value five. It was derived from the Phoenic ...

or similar crescent-shaped axes that were used in warfare. The ''khopesh'' also evolved from the crescent-shaped swords that came with settlers to the delta region from

Western Asia West Asia (also called Western Asia or Southwest Asia) is the westernmost region of Asia. As defined by most academics, UN bodies and other institutions, the subregion consists of Anatolia, the Arabian Peninsula, Iran, Mesopotamia, the Armenian ...

.Mieroop, Marc Van De. ''A History of Ancient Egypt''. John Wiley & Sons, 2021. pg 126 The ''khopesh'' was also a ceremonial object shown alongside depictions of kings and represents a symbol of power and conquest.

History

The ''khopesh'' did not originate in Egypt and was a foreign technology that was introduced to Egypt during the

when the

Hyksos The Hyksos (; Egyptian language, Egyptian ''wikt:ḥqꜣ, ḥqꜣ(w)-wikt:ḫꜣst, ḫꜣswt'', Egyptological pronunciation: ''heqau khasut'', "ruler(s) of foreign lands"), in modern Egyptology, are the kings of the Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt ( ...

ruled

Lower Egypt Lower Egypt ( ') is the northernmost region of Egypt, which consists of the fertile Nile Delta between Upper Egypt and the Mediterranean Sea, from El Aiyat, south of modern-day Cairo, and Dahshur. Historically, the Nile River split into sev ...

.Mieroop, Marc Van De. ''A History of Ancient Egypt''. John Wiley & Sons, 2021. pg 126 The Hyksos most likely originated from the

Levant The Levant ( ) is the subregion that borders the Eastern Mediterranean, Eastern Mediterranean sea to the west, and forms the core of West Asia and the political term, Middle East, ''Middle East''. In its narrowest sense, which is in use toda ...

and brought new technological advances to Egypt. The

brought new techniques in pottery, bronze working, and weaving, they also brought new weapons like composite bows, chariots, and curved swords that were the precursors to the ''khopesh''Lloyd, Alan B. ''A Companion to Ancient Egypt''. Spalinger, Anothony J. ''Ch 23. Military Institutions and Warfare: Pharaonic.'' Newark, UNITED KINGDOM: John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, 2010.''.'' The earliest known depiction of a ''khopesh'' is from the

Stele of the Vultures The Stele of the Vultures is a monument from the Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia), Early Dynastic IIIb period (2600–2350 BC) in Mesopotamia celebrating a victory of the city-state of Lagash over its neighbour Umma. It shows various battle and ...

, depicting King Eannatum of

Lagash Lagash (; cuneiform: LAGAŠKI; Sumerian language, Sumerian: ''Lagaš'') was an ancient city-state located northwest of the junction of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers and east of Uruk, about east of the modern town of Al-Shatrah, Iraq. Lagash ( ...

wielding the weapon; this would date the ''khopesh'' to at least 2500 BC. The height of the use of the ''khopesh'' was during the New Kingdom Dynasties in which warfare and imperial conquest were key features of the New Kingdoms.Mieroop, Marc Van De. ''A History of Ancient Egypt''. John Wiley & Sons, 2021. pg 126 The ''khopesh'' fell out of use around 1300 BC. Ancient Egyptian soldiers carried the ''khopesh'' with various weapons such as axes, spears, maces, daggers, bows, and war chariots.Lloyd, Alan B. ''A Companion to Ancient Egypt''. Spalinger, Anothony J. ''Ch 23. Military Institutions and Warfare: Pharaonic.'' Newark, UNITED KINGDOM: John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, 2010. Outside of active warfare, the ''khopesh'' is often featured alongside depictions of Kings as a symbol of power and conquest. Although some examples have clearly sharpened edges, many examples have dull edges that apparently were never intended to be sharp. It may therefore be possible that some ''khopeshes'' found in high-status graves were ceremonial variants. Various pharaohs are depicted with a ''khopesh'', and some have been found in royal graves, such as the two examples found with

Tutankhamun Tutankhamun or Tutankhamen, (; ), was an Egyptian pharaoh who ruled during the late Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt, Eighteenth Dynasty of ancient Egypt. Born Tutankhaten, he instituted the restoration of the traditional polytheistic form of an ...

Examples in art

Depictions of the ''khopesh'' are also common in carvings from the New Kingdom Period. Carvings typically show the ''khopesh'' being wielded by a King in battle or while in a ceremonial setting. This use of the ''khopesh'' is used to associate kings with concepts of power and conquest. * In an ''

ostracon An ostracon (Greek language, Greek: ''ostrakon'', plural ''ostraka'') is a piece of pottery, usually broken off from a vase or other earthenware vessel. In an archaeology, archaeological or epigraphy, epigraphical context, ''ostraca'' refer ...

'' from the New Kingdom, a depiction of Ramesses IV is shown wielding a ''khopesh'' used to smite his enemies. The ''ostracon'' came from the reign of Ramesses IV putting its creation around 1153–1147 B.C. It is currently in possession of the MFA Boston. * A plaster relief on the exterior of the

Hypostyle In architecture, a hypostyle () hall has a roof which is supported by columns. Etymology The term ''hypostyle'' comes from the ancient Greek ὑπόστυλος ''hypóstȳlos'' meaning "under columns" (where ὑπό ''hypó'' means below or und ...

Hall at Karnack shows a depiction of

Seti I Menmaatre Seti I (or Sethos I in Greek language, Greek) was the second pharaoh of the Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt during the New Kingdom of Egypt, New Kingdom period, ruling or 1290 BC to 1279 BC. He was the son of Ramesses I and Sitre, and th ...

from the 19th dynasty in a battle scene with a war chariot and a raised ''khopesh.'' In the scene,

is trampling a group of enemies who are depicted as

Libyans Demographics of Libya is the demography of Libya, specifically covering population density, Ethnic group, ethnicity, and Religion in Libya, religious affiliations, as well as other aspects of the Libyan population. All figures are from the Uni ...

. The

Merneptah Stele The Merneptah Stele, also known as the Israel Stele or the Victory Stele of Merneptah, is an inscription by Merneptah, a pharaoh in ancient Egypt who reigned from 1213 to 1203 BCE. Discovered by Flinders Petrie at Thebes, Egypt, Thebes in 1896, i ...

from the New Kingdom depicts

Merneptah Merneptah () or Merenptah (reigned July or August 1213–2 May 1203 BCE) was the fourth pharaoh of the Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt, Nineteenth Dynasty of Ancient Egypt. According to contemporary historical records, he ruled Egypt for almost ten y ...

, the fourth king of the 19th dynasty being given a ''khopesh'' from the God

Amun Amun was a major ancient Egyptian deity who appears as a member of the Hermopolitan Ogdoad. Amun was attested from the Old Kingdom together with his wife Amunet. His oracle in Siwa Oasis, located in Western Egypt near the Libyan Desert, r ...

after his victory over the Libyans in the north. File:Mural_of_Seti_I._Assest_Number_1613786221.jpg, Mural of Seti I holding a khopesh while riding in a war chariot and trampling Libyans found at Karnak. File:Merneptah_Stele_2022_09.jpg, alt=Merneptah stele showing a carving of merneptah being given a khopesh by Amun,

, depicting Merneptah's victory over the Libyans in 1208 BCE.

is being given a ''khopesh'' by

Examples in archeology

Archeological examples of the ''khopesh'' have been found in tombs with both dull and sharpened edges. This points to the ''khopesh'' being used as a ceremonial object as well as a weapon. Archeological examples of the ''khopesh'' are most prevalent in the New Kingdom period after their introduction during the second intermediate period. * A bronze ''khopesh'' found in the region of

Palestine Palestine, officially the State of Palestine, is a country in West Asia. Recognized by International recognition of Palestine, 147 of the UN's 193 member states, it encompasses the Israeli-occupied West Bank, including East Jerusalem, and th ...

was found with an engraving of Ramses II. ''Louvre. E 25689.'' * Two examples of a ''khopesh'' were found in the tomb of King

. These swords were ornately carved and with a dull edge, indicating these swords were largely ceremonial in purpose
JE 61588

References

Bibliography

* *

External links

* {{Africa Weapons 3rd-millennium BC introductions African swords Ancient Near East weapons Bronze Age Lagash Middle Eastern swords Military history of ancient Egypt Weapons of Egypt