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Khawabi (), also spelled Qal'at al-Khawabi () is a village and medieval citadel in northwestern
Syria Syria, officially the Syrian Arab Republic, is a country in West Asia located in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Levant. It borders the Mediterranean Sea to the west, Turkey to Syria–Turkey border, the north, Iraq to Iraq–Syria border, t ...
, administratively part of the
Tartus Governorate Tartus Governorate, also transliterated as Tartous Governorate ( / ALA-LC: ''Muḥāfaẓat Ṭarṭūs''), is one of the 14 governorates of Syria. It is situated in western Syria, bordering Latakia Governorate to the north, Homs and Hama Governo ...
, located 20 kilometers northeast of
Tartus Tartus ( / ALA-LC: ''Ṭarṭūs''; known in the County of Tripoli as Tortosa and also transliterated from French language, French Tartous) is a major port city on the Mediterranean coast of Syria. It is the second largest port city in Syria (af ...
and 12 kilometers east of
al-Sawda Al-Sawda (, also spelled Sauda or al-Soda) is a town in northwestern Syria, administratively part of the Tartus Governorate, located 15 kilometers northeast of Tartus. Nearby localities include Annazah to the northeast, Maten al-Sahel to the nor ...
. According to the Syria Central Bureau of Statistics, Khawabi had a population of 1,039 in the 2004 census.General Census of Population and Housing 2004
Syria Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS). Tartus Governorate.
Its inhabitants are predominantly
Sunni Muslim Sunni Islam is the largest branch of Islam and the largest religious denomination in the world. It holds that Muhammad did not appoint any successor and that his closest companion Abu Bakr () rightfully succeeded him as the caliph of the Musli ...
s.Balanche, 2006, p. 47. The village formerly had a significant
Ismaili Ismailism () is a branch of Shia Islam. The Isma'ili () get their name from their acceptance of Imam Isma'il ibn Jafar as the appointed spiritual successor ( imām) to Ja'far al-Sadiq, wherein they differ from the Twelver Shia, who accept ...
population until the early 20th century, and during the medieval period, its citadel (''Qal'at Khawabi'') served as a center of the Ismaili community when they were known as the
Assassins An assassin is a person who commits targeted murder. The origin of the term is the medieval Order of Assassins, a sect of Shia Islam 1090–1275 CE. Assassin, or variants, may also refer to: Fictional characters * Assassin, in the Japanese adult ...
. The citadel itself has been inhabited since at least the 12th century.


Geography

Khawabi is situated in a hilly area, surrounded by
olive The olive, botanical name ''Olea europaea'' ("European olive"), is a species of Subtropics, subtropical evergreen tree in the Family (biology), family Oleaceae. Originating in Anatolia, Asia Minor, it is abundant throughout the Mediterranean ...
groves, in the Coastal Mountain Range. Nearby localities include
al-Sawda Al-Sawda (, also spelled Sauda or al-Soda) is a town in northwestern Syria, administratively part of the Tartus Governorate, located 15 kilometers northeast of Tartus. Nearby localities include Annazah to the northeast, Maten al-Sahel to the nor ...
and to the west, Al-Annazah to the northwest,
al-Qamsiyah Al-Qamsiyah () is a town in northwestern Syria, administratively part of the Tartus Governorate, located north of Tartus. Nearby localities include al-Annazeh, Maten al-Sahel and Husayn al-Baher to the southwest and Khawabi, Khirbet al-Faras and ...
to the north, Brummanet Raad to the northeast,
al-Shaykh Badr Al-Shaykh Badr (, also transliterated ''Sheikh Bader'') is a city in western Syria, administratively part of the Tartus Governorate. Al-Shaykh Badr has an altitude of . According to the Syria Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS), al-Shaykh Badr, w ...
to the east,
Khirbet al-Faras Khirbat Al Faras () is a Syrian city administratively belonging to Tartus Governorate located in the Khawabi region, its distance from city of Tartus about 20 km. Khirbat Al Faras has an altitude of 300 meters and surrounded by two rivers. Ac ...
to the south and
Bimalkah Bimalkah (, also spelled Bmalkyeh) is a village and suburb in northwestern Syria, administratively part of the Tartus Governorate, located 10 kilometers northeast of Tartus. Nearby localities include Dweir al-Shaykh Saad to the west, al-Shaykh Sa ...
to the southwest.


History


Early history

Like many of the other castles in coastal Syria, the castle of Khawabi has its origins in the
Phoenicia Phoenicians were an Ancient Semitic-speaking peoples, ancient Semitic group of people who lived in the Phoenician city-states along a coastal strip in the Levant region of the eastern Mediterranean, primarily modern Lebanon and the Syria, Syrian ...
n era (1200–539 BC). In 985, under Muslim rule, the geographer
al-Muqaddasi Shams al-Din Abu Abd Allah Muhammad ibn Ahmad ibn Abi Bakr, commonly known by the '' nisba'' al-Maqdisi or al-Muqaddasī, was a medieval Arab geographer, author of ''The Best Divisions in the Knowledge of the Regions'' and ''Description of Syri ...
noted that ''Hisn al-Khawabi'' ('the Citadel of Khawabi') was part of
Jund Hims ''Jund Ḥimṣ'' (, " military district of Homs") was one of the military districts of the caliphal province of Syria. Geography The capital of Jund Hims was Homs, from which the district received its name. Its principal urban centres in the 1 ...
(the military district of
Homs Homs ( ; ), known in pre-Islamic times as Emesa ( ; ), is a city in western Syria and the capital of the Homs Governorate. It is Metres above sea level, above sea level and is located north of Damascus. Located on the Orontes River, Homs is ...
). In 1025, when the area was controlled by the
Byzantine Empire The Byzantine Empire, also known as the Eastern Roman Empire, was the continuation of the Roman Empire centred on Constantinople during late antiquity and the Middle Ages. Having survived History of the Roman Empire, the events that caused the ...
, the citadel was restored by the Byzantines.Al-Cheikh, Zeina
Al-Khawabi Citadel
Originally published Al-Cheikh, Zeina. ''Military Architecture''. 2011-04-15. "Rehabilitation of Al-Khawabi Citadel."
Tishreen University Latakia University (, ) is a public university located in Latakia, Syria. It is the third-largest university in Syria. History The university was founded under the name of the University of Latakia on 20 May 1971. The name was changed in 1975 ...
: Faculty of Architecture.
Khawabi later came into the possession of one Muhammad ibn Ali ibn Hamid.


Nizari Isma'ili fortress

The
Crusaders The Crusades were a series of religious wars initiated, supported, and at times directed by the Papacy during the Middle Ages. The most prominent of these were the campaigns to the Holy Land aimed at reclaiming Jerusalem and its surrounding ...
, who referred to the citadel as ''La Coible'', acquired Khawabi from its owner, Ibn Hamid, in 1111 and assigned its governorship to a local lord. However, author and expert in Isma'ili studies, Peter Willey, notes that there is no evidence the Crusaders ever held it, though they did refer to it as ''Coible'' and considered it an endangerment to their coastal mountain positions.Willey, 2005, p. 238. A short time following the
Nizari Isma'ili Nizari Isma'ilism () are the largest segment of the Isma'ilism, Ismailis, who are the second-largest branch of Shia Islam after the Twelvers. Nizari teachings emphasise independent reasoning or ''ijtihad''; Pluralism (philosophy), pluralism— ...
s' capture of
Masyaf Masyaf ( ') is a city in northwestern Syria. It is the center of the Masyaf District in the Hama Governorate. As of 2004, Masyaf had a religiously diverse population of approximately 22,000 Ismailis, Alawites and Christians. The city is well kno ...
in 1141, they proceeded to conquer Khawabi. By the time the Isma'ili chief
Rashid al-Din Sinan Rashid al-Din Sinan ( ; 1131/1135 – 1193) also known as the Old Man of the Mountain ( ; ), was an Arab Muslim missionary () who served as the leader of the Nizari Ismaili state and the Order of Assassins from 1162 until his death in 1193. ...
renovated the citadel into a formidable possession in 1160, Khawabi had developed into an Isma'ili religious center.Burns, 2009, p. 230. Part of Sinan's renovations included the construction of a tower at the citadel's entrance and the replacement of some walls. Khawabi became geostrategically important for the Isma'ilis since it provided further defense for other Isma'ili mountain fortresses to its southwest. After the Isma'ilis assassinated
Raymond Raymond is a male given name of Germanic origin. It was borrowed into English from French (older French spellings were Reimund and Raimund, whereas the modern English and French spellings are identical). It originated as the Germanic ᚱᚨᚷ ...
, the eldest son of
Bohemond IV Bohemond IV of Antioch, also known as Bohemond the One-Eyed (; 11751233), was Count of Tripoli from 1187 to 1233, and Prince of Antioch from 1201 to 1216 and from 1219 to 1233. He was the younger son of Bohemond III of Antioch. The dying Raymond ...
,
prince of Antioch Prince of Antioch was the title given during the Middle Ages to Normans, Norman rulers of the Principality of Antioch, a region surrounding the city of Antioch, now known as Antakya in Turkey. The Princes originally came from the County of Sicil ...
at the
Cathedral of Our Lady of Tortosa The Cathedral of Our Lady of Tortosa () was a Catholic cathedral in the city of Tartus, Syria. Erected during the 12th century, it has been described by historians as "the best-preserved religious structure of the Crusades."Setton, Zacour and ...
in
Tartus Tartus ( / ALA-LC: ''Ṭarṭūs''; known in the County of Tripoli as Tortosa and also transliterated from French language, French Tartous) is a major port city on the Mediterranean coast of Syria. It is the second largest port city in Syria (af ...
, Bohemond and a reinforcement of
Templar The Poor Fellow-Soldiers of Christ and of the Temple of Solomon, mainly known as the Knights Templar, was a military order of the Catholic faith, and one of the most important military orders in Western Christianity. They were founded in 11 ...
s assaulted Khawabi in 1214. The Isma'ilis requested aid from the
Ayyubid The Ayyubid dynasty (), also known as the Ayyubid Sultanate, was the founding dynasty of the medieval Sultan of Egypt, Sultanate of Egypt established by Saladin in 1171, following his abolition of the Fatimid Caliphate, Fatimid Caliphate of Egyp ...
ruler of
Aleppo Aleppo is a city in Syria, which serves as the capital of the Aleppo Governorate, the most populous Governorates of Syria, governorate of Syria. With an estimated population of 2,098,000 residents it is Syria's largest city by urban area, and ...
,
az-Zahir Ghazi Al-Malik az-Zahir Ghiyath ud-din Ghazi ibn Yusuf ibn Ayyub (commonly known as az-Zahir Ghazi; 1172 – 8 October 1216) was the Kurdish Ayyubid emir of Aleppo between 1186 and 1216. He was the third son of Saladin and his lands included northern ...
, who in turn appealed to his rival and uncle
al-Adil Al-Adil I (, in full al-Malik al-Adil Sayf ad-Din Abu-Bakr Ahmed ibn Najm ad-Din Ayyub, ,‎ "Ahmed, son of Najm ad-Din Ayyub, father of Bakr, the Just King, Sword of the Faith"; 1145 – 31 August 1218) was the fourth Sultan of Egypt, Sultan o ...
, the Ayyubid sultan of Egypt. Az-Zahir's relief army was dealt a major setback when the Muslim force was nearly destroyed in a Crusader ambush at
Jabal Bahra The Coastal Mountain Range (, ''Silsilat al-Jibāl as-Sāḥilīyah'') also called Jabal al-Ansariya, Jabal an-Nusayria or Jabal al-`Alawīyin (Ansari, Nusayri or Alawi Mountains) is a mountain range in northwestern Syria running north–south, ...
, on the approaches of Khawabi. However, after al-Adil's son, al-Mu'azzam of
Damascus Damascus ( , ; ) is the capital and List of largest cities in the Levant region by population, largest city of Syria. It is the oldest capital in the world and, according to some, the fourth Holiest sites in Islam, holiest city in Islam. Kno ...
, launched several raids against Bohemond's district of
Tripoli Tripoli or Tripolis (from , meaning "three cities") may refer to: Places Greece *Tripolis (region of Arcadia), a district in ancient Arcadia, Greece * Tripolis (Larisaia), an ancient Greek city in the Pelasgiotis district, Thessaly, near Larissa ...
, destroying all of its villages, Bohemond was compelled to withdraw from Khawabi and issue an apology to az-Zahir.Runciman, p. 138.Daftary, 2007, p. 389.


Mamluk period

The Isma'ilis maintained their control over Khawabi until the beginning of
Mamluk Mamluk or Mamaluk (; (singular), , ''mamālīk'' (plural); translated as "one who is owned", meaning "slave") were non-Arab, ethnically diverse (mostly Turkic, Caucasian, Eastern and Southeastern European) enslaved mercenaries, slave-so ...
rule in Syria. In 1273 the Mamluk sultan
Baybars Al-Malik al-Zahir Rukn al-Din Baybars al-Bunduqdari (; 1223/1228 – 1 July 1277), commonly known as Baibars or Baybars () and nicknamed Abu al-Futuh (, ), was the fourth Mamluk sultan of Egypt and Syria, of Turkic Kipchak origin, in the Ba ...
annexed and destroyed the citadel. From that point on, although the Ismailis had continued to live in the area with limited autonomy under Mamluk rule, the dismantled fortress was no longer used for military purposes. The remainder of the castle's infrastructure was adapted for agricultural or domestic purposes. In 1484 the Mamluk sultan
Qaytbay Sultan Abu Al-Nasr Sayf ad-Din Al-Ashraf Qaitbay (; 1416/14187 August 1496) was the eighteenth Burji Mamluk Sultan of Egypt from 872 to 901 A.H. (1468–1496 C.E.). He was Circassian by birth, and was purchased by the ninth sultan Barsbay ( ...
ended the tax on loom products, cattle slaughtering and shoe repairing for Khawabi and nearby
al-Kahf Al-Kahf () is the 18th chapter (sūrah) of the Qur'an with 110 verses ( āyāt). Regarding the timing and contextual background of the revelation ('' asbāb al-nuzūl''), it is an earlier Meccan surah, which means it was revealed before Muh ...
.


Ottoman period

During the Ottoman period (1516–1918), the Khawabi citadel became a center of Khawabi Nahiya (Nahiye Havabi in Turkish; 'subdistrict of Khawabi').Ottoman Census Data: Minorities, Population and Problems on the Syrian Coast
" ''Tozsuz Evrak'', 2012-07-31.
The Khawabi Nahiya was originally part of the Tripoli Sanjak, part of the larger
Tripoli Eyalet Tripoli Eyalet (; ) was an eyalet of the Ottoman Empire. The capital was in Tripoli, Lebanon. Its reported area in the 19th century was . It extended along the coast, from the southern limits of the Amanus mountains in the north, to the gorge o ...
. In 1563 Khawabi was administrativelty separated to form part of the
Jableh Jableh (; ', also spelt ''Jebleh'', ''Jabala'', ''Jablah, Gabala'' or ''Gibellum'') is a Mediterranean coastal city in Syria, north of Baniyas and south of Latakia, with c. 80,000 inhabitants (2004 census). As Ancient ''Gabala'', it was a By ...
Sanjak, along with several other subdistricts in the coastal mountain range. The Sha'ir family from Tripoli served as the governors of Khawabi in the 18th century after being driven out of
Batroun Batroun ( ';, ancient Botrys (), is a coastal city in northern Lebanon and one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world. It is the capital city of Batroun District. The main Political Party of this city is the Free patriotic ...
. In 1831 the citadel and its ''
nahiya A nāḥiyah ( , plural ''nawāḥī'' ), also nahiyeh, nahiya or nahia, is a regional or local type of administrative division that usually consists of a number of villages or sometimes smaller towns. In Tajikistan, it is a second-level divisi ...
'' became one of the 13 subdistricts of the Latakia Sanjak, then under the authority of the governors of
Acre The acre ( ) is a Unit of measurement, unit of land area used in the Imperial units, British imperial and the United States customary units#Area, United States customary systems. It is traditionally defined as the area of one Chain (unit), ch ...
. In 1865 Khawabi was reassigned to the
Marqab Margat, also known as Marqab (), is a castle near Baniyas, Syria, which was a Crusader fortress and one of the major strongholds of the Knights Hospitaller. It is located around from the Mediterranean coast and approximately south of Baniyas. ...
Sanjak, part of the larger province of Tripoli. The Ottomans constructed a mosque in 1892–93 named after Sultan
Abdul Hamid II Abdulhamid II or Abdul Hamid II (; ; 21 September 184210 February 1918) was the 34th sultan of the Ottoman Empire, from 1876 to 1909, and the last sultan to exert effective control over the fracturing state. He oversaw a Decline and modernizati ...
. The administrative region of Khawabi contained a mixture of religious sects according to the Ottoman census of 1878.
Alawite Alawites () are an Arabs, Arab ethnoreligious group who live primarily in the Levant region in West Asia and follow Alawism, a sect of Islam that splintered from early Shia as a ''ghulat'' branch during the ninth century. Alawites venerate A ...
s constituted 47% of its total population of 1,837,
Isma'ili Ismailism () is a branch of Shia Islam. The Isma'ili () get their name from their acceptance of Imam Isma'il ibn Jafar as the appointed spiritual successor (Imamate in Nizari doctrine, imām) to Ja'far al-Sadiq, wherein they differ from the ...
s 19%,
Greek Orthodox Christian Greek Orthodox Church (, , ) is a term that can refer to any one of three classes of Christian Churches, each associated in some way with Greek Christianity, Levantine Arabic-speaking Christians or more broadly the rite used in the Eastern Roma ...
s 15%, Sunni Muslims 14% and
Maronite Christian Lebanese Maronite Christians (; ) refers to Lebanese people who are members of the Maronite Church in Lebanon, the largest Christian body in the country. The Lebanese Maronite population is concentrated mainly in Mount Lebanon and East Beir ...
s 5%. The Sunni inhabitants of Khawabi's fortress village descend from the mainly
Kurdish Kurdish may refer to: *Kurds or Kurdish people *Kurdish language ** Northern Kurdish (Kurmanji) **Central Kurdish (Sorani) **Southern Kurdish ** Laki Kurdish *Kurdish alphabets *Kurdistan, the land of the Kurdish people which includes: **Southern ...
tribesmen settled there by Baybars or his 13th-century successors. By the early 20th century, towards the ends of Ottoman rule, the Sunni
notables An Assembly of Notables () was a group of high-ranking nobles, ecclesiastics, and state functionaries convened by the King of France on extraordinary occasions to consult on matters of state. Assemblymen were prominent men, usually of the aristo ...
and aghas of Khawabi owned vast tracts of land inhabited by Alawite farming communities between
Duraykish Duraykish (, also transliterated ''Dreikiche'' or ''Dreykish'') is a city in western Syria, in the Tartus Governorate, at a distance of about east of Tartus. The name 'Dreikiche' derives from Latin and means "three caves". The town is famous for ...
and
Qadmus Al-Qadmus (, also spelled al-Qadmous or Cadmus) is a town in northwestern Syria, administratively part of the Tartus Governorate, located northeast of Tartus and southeast of Baniyas. Nearby localities include Kaff al-Jaa and Masyaf to the east, ...
and the fortress village served as the ''nahiye'' headquarters. The French novelist
Maurice Barrès Auguste-Maurice Barrès (; 19 August 1862 – 4 December 1923) was a French novelist, journalist, philosopher, and politician. Spending some time in Italy, he became a figure in French literature with the release of his work ''The Cult of the S ...
, who visited in 1914, noted that the agricultural products of the ''nahiye'' flowed to Khawabi's market.


French Mandatory period

In 1918–19, during the initial period of French Mandatory rule that soon followed the Ottoman defeat in Syria in World War I, the center of the ''nahiye'' was transferred to the Christian village of
al-Sawda Al-Sawda (, also spelled Sauda or al-Soda) is a town in northwestern Syria, administratively part of the Tartus Governorate, located 15 kilometers northeast of Tartus. Nearby localities include Annazah to the northeast, Maten al-Sahel to the nor ...
by the French authorities as a consequence of Khawabi's participation in the anti-French Syrian Coastal Revolt led by Sheikh Salih al-Ali, an Alawite sheikh from the area. Al-Ali had used Khawabi's citadel to store weaponry during the revolt. Most of the fortress village's Isma'ili inhabitants had been evacuated to nearby villages while a smaller number had emigrated the Isma'ili-majority towns of
Masyaf Masyaf ( ') is a city in northwestern Syria. It is the center of the Masyaf District in the Hama Governorate. As of 2004, Masyaf had a religiously diverse population of approximately 22,000 Ismailis, Alawites and Christians. The city is well kno ...
and
Salamiya A full view of Shmemis (spring 1995) Salamiyah (; also transliterated ''Salamiyya'', ''Salamieh'' or ''Salamya'') is a city in central Syria, administratively part of the Hama Governorate. It is located southeast of Hama, northeast of Homs. It ...
in the district of
Hama Hama ( ', ) is a city on the banks of the Orontes River in west-central Syria. It is located north of Damascus and north of Homs. It is the provincial capital of the Hama Governorate. With a population of 996,000 (2023 census), Hama is one o ...
. The French authorities set fire to the citadel to punish Khawabi's inhabitants for their resistance against the French occupation. During the French Mandatory period (1920–1946), Khawabi became overshadowed by al-Sawda, with people traveling to the latter town for commercial transactions instead of Khawabi, which also lost its court, police station and civil registry office. While Khawabi rapidly declined, al-Sawda became a dynamic regional center with a clinic, a secondary school and a wide range of shops. The Isma'ili population in the village had been gradually declining and by 1930 none of the Isma'ili inhabitants remained. Until the present day, Khawabi's inhabitants are mostly Sunni Muslims. Most of the Isma'ili residents fled the village following disputes with its Sunni Muslim residents over land and livestock. The dispute ultimately prompted the Sunnis to invite
Alawite Alawites () are an Arabs, Arab ethnoreligious group who live primarily in the Levant region in West Asia and follow Alawism, a sect of Islam that splintered from early Shia as a ''ghulat'' branch during the ninth century. Alawites venerate A ...
militias, who were also in conflict with the Isma'ilis during that time, to assault the community. About 100 residents were killed and thousands more in the area fled to
Tartus Tartus ( / ALA-LC: ''Ṭarṭūs''; known in the County of Tripoli as Tortosa and also transliterated from French language, French Tartous) is a major port city on the Mediterranean coast of Syria. It is the second largest port city in Syria (af ...
.Douwes, ed. Daftary 2011, p. 33. Most of Khawabi's former Isma'ili inhabitants relocated to the nearby hamlet of
Aqir Zayti Aqir Zayti (, also spelled ''Aqir Zayt'' or ''Aqir Zeit'') is a village in northwestern Syria, administratively part of the Tartus Governorate, located in the Syrian Coastal Mountain Range, east of Tartus. The village of Khirbet al-Faras is locate ...
. Meanwhile, Alawite tribal sheikhs used the opportunity of Khawabi's weakened status to confiscate part of the Sunni aghas' landholdings outside the village.


Post-Syrian independence

In the early 1950s, the modern village of Khawabi was founded below the fortress. Before, all the inhabitants had lived inside the fortress. Compounding their losses of land during the French Mandate, the notables of Khawabi lost the bulk of their remaining tracts through the
agrarian reform Land reform (also known as agrarian reform) involves the changing of laws, regulations, or customs regarding land ownership, land use, and land transfers. The reforms may be initiated by governments, by interested groups, or by revolution. Lan ...
laws of the 1950s and 1960s. Most of the notables consequently moved to Tartus to work in trade, with many gradually cutting off ties to their relatives in the village. Between 1970 and 1998 much of the strongly-built area of the fortress's northern end was dismantled. A house adjacent to the central citadel serves as the residence of Khawabi's community headman. Khawabi lacks a municipal authority and its only connection to the state is through its agricultural cooperative, which negotiates with the state to provide services to the village. The citadel is currently registered as private property by the Syrian Directorate of Antiquities and Museums. The current inhabitants, who are split between eight main families, own their homes in the village and are largely self-sufficient. In 1994, Khawabi had a population of 880, nearly all Sunni Muslims, with an Alawite minority living in a hamlet on the edge of the main village. The main village consisted of a narrow street, which was paved in 1993, lined with a cluster of houses built of stone, concrete and wood and attached to stables, which led to unsanitary conditions on the street. On the slope above were a few scattered homes built of reinforced concrete. Though the village was connected to electricity, there were no telephone lines until 1997. As of 2000, public transport in the village consisted of two minibus line connections to Tartus, where some of the inhabitants worked in cement factories or as port dockers, with seldom few employed in the civil service. Commerce in the village was limited to a butcher's shop, two barbershops, a few grocery stores and an olive press that was built in 1925. Most of the working population was engaged in agriculture, either consisting of raising sheep and goats on the scrublands of the surrounding slopes or olive groves grown on small plots typically around ten
dunam A dunam ( Ottoman Turkish, Arabic: ; ; ; ), also known as a donum or dunum and as the old, Turkish, or Ottoman stremma, was the Ottoman unit of area analogous in role (but not equal) to the Greek stremma or English acre, representing the amo ...
s. Underneath the olive trees the local farmers planted grains or vegetables for subsistence purposes. Khawabi remained relatively underdeveloped and characterized by illiteracy, high birth rates and early female marriage, compared to the surrounding Alawite communities.


Fortress architecture

Qal'at Khawabi measures 350 meters by 200 meters, having a total area of roughly 70,000 square meters.Willey, 2005, p. 239.Castle of Khawabi
. The Institute of Ismaili Studies. 2009-06-29.
It has a single entrance which is preceded by two flights of shallow stairways acquainted for cavalry. The first flight consists of 20 steps, leading to the second flight which has 40 steps into the still-preserved gatehouse at the northern end of the fortress. The gatehouse has a double entrance protected by archways and its upper floor's windows have been enlarged.Willey, 2005, pp. 238-239. The fortress consists of two principal sections, Harat Rashid al-Din Sinan (referred to as Bayt al-Agha by locals) and Harat al-Saki. The former occupies the upper area of the citadel and many of its historic characteristics, with the exception of its cellars and stables, virtually disappeared with the construction of new housing in the 1990s. The visible parts of the wall in this section consist of thin reinforced concrete, typical of the architectural designs of the late
Ottoman era The Ottoman Empire (), also called the Turkish Empire, was an imperial realm that controlled much of Southeast Europe, West Asia, and North Africa from the 14th to early 20th centuries; it also controlled parts of southeastern Central Euro ...
. Harat al-Saki retains much of its historical character, with its ruined residences, medieval walls and cellars. Although a number of residents of the citadel have built new homes by dismantling some parts of the walls, most of Harat al-Saki's residents have built relocated outside of the citadel walls. The eastern part of Qal'at Khawabi contains the fortress's main defenses, although its northern end is also strongly buttressed. The latter part of the fortress possesses chambers meant for water storage. In the center of the fortress stands the
citadel A citadel is the most fortified area of a town or city. It may be a castle, fortress, or fortified center. The term is a diminutive of ''city'', meaning "little city", because it is a smaller part of the city of which it is the defensive core. ...
which is protected by double-walls. A narrow north–south path, from which two alleyways to the eastern and western sections branch out, runs through the middle of the fortress. Willey considered the remaining stone masonry of the outside walls to be "fine," disagreeing with Syrian architecture expert
Ross Burns Ross may refer to: People and fictional characters * Ross (name), including a list of people and fictional characters with the surname or given name Ross, as well as the meaning * Clan Ross, a Highland Scottish clan Places Antarctica * Ross Sea * ...
' generally unfavorable opinion of Khawabi's stonework.


References


Bibliography

* * *Burns, Ross (2009) ''The Monuments of Syria: A Guide'' (third edition) I.B. Tauris, London, page 140, * * * * * * * * * {{Ismaili castles Archaeological sites in Tartus Governorate Castles in Syria Populated places in Tartus District Castles of the Nizari Ismaili state