The Khalji Revolution, alternatively spelled the Khilji Revolution, marked a military coup and a period of political and societal transformation in the

Delhi Sultanate The Delhi Sultanate or the Sultanate of Delhi was a Medieval India, late medieval empire primarily based in Delhi that stretched over large parts of the Indian subcontinent for more than three centuries.

. It unfolded following the death of the Mamluk sultan Balban and the subsequent incapacity of his successors to effectively govern the Delhi Sultanate. The upheaval commenced and concluded in 1290 when

Jalaluddin Khalji Jalal-ud-Din Khalji, also known as Firuz al-Din Khalji, Jalaluddin Khilji or Firuz II ( Persian; جلال الدین خلجی c. 1220 – 19 July 1296, ) was the founder and first Sultan of the Khalji dynasty that ruled the Delhi Sultanate of ...

seized absolute power, defeating the Turkic nobility and toppling the Mamluks, inaugurating the rule of the

Khalji dynasty The Khalji or Khilji dynasty was a Turco-Afghan dynasty that ruled the Delhi Sultanate for three decades between 1290 and 1320. It was the second dynasty to rule the Delhi Sultanate which covered large swaths of the Indian subcontinent.

. After Balban's death, his underage grandson Qaiqabad ascended the throne. A poor governor, Qaiqabad later fell ill and became paralyzed, leading to the succession of his son, Shamsuddin Kayumars. Amidst this upheaval, two factions arose within the Mamluk court, with the Turkic element led by Aitmar Surkah facing off against Jalaluddin Khalji's group. Conflict erupted between the factions, culminating in the Khaljis kidnapping Shamsuddin, the child sultan. A battle ensued, resulting in the defeat of the Turks; the majority of the nobles defected to the Khalji faction. With the child sultan under his control and Qaiqabad nearing death, Jalaluddin assumed the roles of

regent In a monarchy, a regent () is a person appointed to govern a state because the actual monarch is a minor, absent, incapacitated or unable to discharge their powers and duties, or the throne is vacant and a new monarch has not yet been dete ...

and wazir, ultimately consolidating power and deposing Shamsuddin in June 1290. The success of the revolution witnessed the Khaljis replacing the Mamluks as the ruling dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate. Jalaluddin's reign lasted six years until his assassination by his nephew,

Alauddin Khalji Alauddin Khalji (; ), born Ali Gurshasp, was a ruler from the Khalji dynasty that ruled the Delhi Sultanate in the Indian subcontinent. Alauddin instituted a number of significant administrative changes in the Delhi Sultanate, related to revenue ...

. The revolution signaled the end of Turkic hegemony over the nobility of the Delhi Sultanate, and the rise of Turko-Afghans began.

Background

The Mamluk dynasty was established in 1206 after the

Ghurid Empire The Ghurid dynasty (also spelled Ghorids; ; self-designation: , ''Šansabānī'') was a Persianate dynasty of eastern Iranian peoples, Iranian Tajik people, Tajik origin, which ruled from the 8th-century in the region of Ghor, and became an Emp ...

under Muhammad of Ghor conducted numerous invasions into India. Founded by Qutb ud-Din Aibak, a Turkic slave of his Ghurid overlord Muhammad of Ghor, it rose to power following Muhammad's death. Qutb ud-Din, who expanded the

through campaigns against Indian kingdoms, was succeeded by

Iltutmish Shams ud-Din Iltutmish (1192 – 30 April 1236) was the third of the Mamluk kings who ruled the former Ghurid territories in northern India. He was the first Muslim sovereign to rule from Delhi, and is thus considered the effective founder of ...

, a ruler who significantly expanded the Sultanate further and implemented numerous reforms. Balban, another ruler of the Delhi Sultanate, continued to consolidate the kingdom after ascending the throne in 1266. His death in 1286 led to his grandson Qaiqabad assuming the throne. Qaiqabad, initially raised following Islamic principles, was corrupted by his new powers, resulting in a decline of the administrative reforms initiated by Balban. Seizing the opportunity presented by Qaiqabad's shortcomings, Nizamuddin, a noble, became the de facto

of the Sultanate, consolidating power by placing loyalists in key positions.

Rise of Jalaluddin

Bughra Khan, Qaiqabad's father, alarmed by Nizamuddin's rapid acquisition of power and Qaiqabad's elimination of rival amirs, warned his son by letters about Nizamuddin's influence. Ignoring his father's advice, Qaiqabad failed to recognize the danger and, as a result, Bughra Khan decided to personally meet his son in

Bengal Bengal ( ) is a Historical geography, historical geographical, ethnolinguistic and cultural term referring to a region in the Eastern South Asia, eastern part of the Indian subcontinent at the apex of the Bay of Bengal. The region of Benga ...

. Nizamuddin attempted to capitalize off of this by driving Qaiqabad and Bughra against each other.

Amir Khusrau Abu'l Hasan Yamīn ud-Dīn Khusrau (1253 – 1325 AD), better known as Amīr Khusrau, sometimes spelled as, Amir Khusrow or Amir Khusro, was an Indo-Persian Sufi singer, musician, poet and scholar, who lived during the period of the Delhi Sult ...

and Barani provide differing accounts of their meeting. Amir Khusrau states that Bughra Khan aimed to seize Delhi for himself. Qaiqabad, in response, advanced to

Bihar Bihar ( ) is a states and union territories of India, state in Eastern India. It is the list of states and union territories of India by population, second largest state by population, the List of states and union territories of India by are ...

and began preparing for conflict. Barani, however, suggests that Qaiqabad himself initiated the assembly of an army to confront his father. Nizamuddin's attempts to foment discord between the father and son failed. Bughra Khan and Qaiqabad met on the banks of the Ghaghara river in 1288. Bughra Khan advised Qaiqabad to abstain from pleasure with concubines, and to remove Nizamuddin from power. After his father's departure, Qaiqabad attempted to resist indulging in debauchery. Qaiqabad instructed Nizamuddin to return to

Multan Multan is the List of cities in Punjab, Pakistan by population, fifth-most populous city in the Punjab, Pakistan, Punjab province of Pakistan. Located along the eastern bank of the Chenab River, it is the List of cities in Pakistan by populatio ...

to oversee administrative affairs. Aware his position was being undermined, Nizamuddin his departure until he was eventually poisoned and killed by Turkic officers, who secretly obtained permission from Qaiqabad. As a result, Qaiqabad fell into his former lifestyle. The assassination of Nizamuddin impaired the government's administrative capabilities, prompting Qaiqabad to seek assistance from Jalaluddin, who was the governor of Samana. Jalaluddin, distinguished for his role in repelling Mongol invasions, was given the title of Shaista Khan by Qaiqabad, along with the positions of minister of war and governorship of Baran. However, other Turkic nobles opposed Jalaluddin's rise due to his low-born Afghan origin, and contested his position. Under unknown circumstances, Qaiqabad was paralyzed, initiating a power struggle in the court. This led to Aitmar Surkah and Aitmar Kachhan placing Qaiqabad's young son, Shamsuddin Kayumars, on the Delhi throne in February 1290. Shamsuddin's ascension saw the emergence of two factions within the Mamluk court: the Turkic faction led by Aitmar Surkah and Aitmar Kachhan, and the Khalji faction led by Jalaluddin. The Turkic faction aimed to maintain their dominance over the Delhi Sultanate, while the Khalji faction sought power for themselves.

Revolution

Aitmar Surkah and Aitmar Kachhan conspired against Jalaluddin's faction. They formed a list of nobles of which they intended to put to death, beginning with Jalaluddin. Ahmad Chap, the Hajib of the Mamluks, informed Jalaluddin of the impending plot. Believing

Delhi Delhi, officially the National Capital Territory (NCT) of Delhi, is a city and a union territory of India containing New Delhi, the capital of India. Straddling the Yamuna river, but spread chiefly to the west, or beyond its Bank (geography ...

was no longer safe, he departed for Baharpur, gathering men from Baran under the pretext of an imminent

Mongol invasion The Mongol invasions and conquests took place during the 13th and 14th centuries, creating history's largest contiguous empire, the Mongol Empire (1206–1368), which by 1260 covered large parts of Eurasia. Historians regard the Mongol devastati ...

. Subsequently, Aitmar Surkah and Aitmar Kachhan conspired. Accounts differ, sending a letter to Jalaluddin either summoning him to the Mamluk court, or addressing him as emperor. Regardless, as Aitmar Kachhan arrived at Jalaluddin's camp, he was either pulled from his horse and killed by

, or while he was relaxing under a tent. This incident officially sparked conflict between the two factions. Jalaluddin's sons quickly rode to

with around 50 horsemen, forcibly seizing Shamsuddin and retreating to Baharpur. Aitmar Surkah pursued the force, engaging in battle. In one encounter, Ikhtiyaruddin, Jalaluddin's eldest son, was thrown from his horse and engaged in

single combat Single combat is a duel between two single combatants which takes place in the context of a battle between two army, armies. Instances of single combat are known from Classical Antiquity and the Middle Ages. The champions were often combatants wh ...

with Aitmar Surkah. Despite being struck at least twice, Ikhtiyaruddin survived and managed to decapitate Aitmar Surkah. Following this, a revolt erupted in Delhi. The rebels sought to march to Baharpur and support Shamsuddin to power. They were prevented from doing so at Badaon by Malikul'umra, the guard for the gates of Delhi, because his own sons being held captive by the Khaljis. With Aitmar Surkah dead and the rebels dispersed, many Turkic amirs defected to the Khaljis, significantly bolstering their strength. Unopposed, Jalaluddin ordered Qaiqabad's execution. Qaiqabad was wrapped in a bedsheet and thrown into the

Yamuna River The Yamuna (; ) is the second-largest tributary river of the Ganges by discharge and the longest tributary in List of major rivers of India, India. Originating from the Yamunotri Glacier at a height of about on the southwestern slopes of B ...

. Despite holding a powerful position, Jalaluddin initially allowed Shamsuddin to continue ruling, relocating him to Baharpur while also negotiating with Malik Chajju, a nephew of Balban. Jalaluddin offered Malik Chajju the role of regent. However, Malik Chajju preferred the governorship of Kara. With Jalaluddin's approval, Malik Chajju left for his new governorship. Jalaluddin then assumed the roles of

and wazir of the Sultanate. Eventually, he seized complete power, crowning himself in Kilughari Palace, an Afghan

enclave An enclave is a territory that is entirely surrounded by the territory of only one other state or entity. An enclave can be an independent territory or part of a larger one. Enclaves may also exist within territorial waters. ''Enclave'' is so ...

suburb in Delhi, in June 1290. Shamsuddin was imprisoned and died sometime afterward.

Aftermath

With the ascent of the Turko-Afghan

and Jalaluddin's rule, Turkic dominance over the nobility of the Sultanate was dismantled, allowing other non-Turks to assume prominence. The Khaljis ruled the

from 1290 to 1320 before being succeeded by the

Tughlaq dynasty The Tughlaq dynasty (also known as the Tughluq or Tughluk dynasty; ) was the third dynasty to rule over the Delhi Sultanate in medieval India. Its reign started in 1320 in Delhi when Ghazi Malik assumed the throne under the title of Ghiyath ...

.: ...after his death his grandson and great-grandson were soon ousted, and the throne was then seized by the Turkish or turkicized Ḵaljīs. After the murder of the last of the line, Qotbá-al-Dīn Mobārak Shah (716-20/1316-20), by his favorite the sultanate was restored by Ḡāzī Malek, governor of Dipalpur (Punjab), who mounted the throne as Ḡīāṯ-al-Dīn Toḡloq and founded the Tughluqid dynasty (720-817/1320-1414). Jalaluddin's rule lasted only six years before his assassination by his ambitious nephew,

, who significantly expanded the Sultanate during his reign from 1296 to 1316.

Citations

References