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''Kathakali'' (
IAST The International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration (IAST) is a transliteration scheme that allows the lossless romanisation of Brahmic family, Indic scripts as employed by Sanskrit and related Indic languages. It is based on a scheme that ...
: Kathakaḷi ) is a traditional form of
Indian Classical Dance Indian classical dance, or ''Shastriya Nritya'', is an umbrella term for different regionally-specific Indian classical dance traditions, rooted in predominantly Hindu musical theatre performance,, Quote: All of the dances considered to be part ...
, and one of the most complex forms of
Indian theatre Theatre of India is one of the most ancient forms of theatre and it features a detailed textual, sculptural, and dramatic effects which emerged in mid first millennium BC. Like in the areas of music and dance, the Indian theatre is also defin ...
. It is a play of verses. These verses are called Kathakali literature or '' Attakatha''. Mostly played in the courts of kings and temple festivals. Hence it is known as suvarna art forms. This performance uses the ''
navarasas Indian art evolved with an emphasis on inducing special spiritual or philosophical states in the audience, or with representing them symbolically. Rasas in the performing arts The theory of rasas still forms the aesthetic underpinning of a ...
'' from the
Natya Shastra The ''Nāṭya Shāstra'' (, ''Nāṭyaśāstra'') is a Sanskrit treatise on the performing arts. The text is attributed to sage Bharata, and its first complete compilation is dated to between 200 BCE and 200 CE, but estimates vary b ...
text, authored by sage Bharata. Makeup and costumes are unique and large. It represents one of Kerala's traditional theater artforms. It is native to the
Malayalam Malayalam (; , ) is a Dravidian languages, Dravidian language spoken in the Indian state of Kerala and the union territories of Lakshadweep and Puducherry (union territory), Puducherry (Mahé district) by the Malayali people. It is one of ...
-speaking state of
Kerala Kerala ( , ) is a States and union territories of India, state on the Malabar Coast of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, following the passage of the States Reorganisation Act, by combining Malayalam-speaking regions of the erstwhile ...
and is almost entirely practiced by
Malayali The Malayali people (; also spelt Malayalee and sometimes known by the demonym Keralite) are a Dravidian ethnolinguistic group originating from the present-day state of Kerala and Union Territory of Lakshadweep in India, occupying its south ...
people. Kathakali is closely related to a more ancient theater artform of Kerala called ''
Kutiyattam Koodiyattam (; IAST: kūṭiyāṭṭaṁ; ) is a traditional performing art form in the state of Kerala, India. It is a combination of ancient Sanskrit theatre with elements of ''Koothu'', an ancient performing art from the Sangam era. It is ...
'' which is the only surviving specimen of the ancient
Sanskrit theatre The term Indian classical drama refers to the tradition of dramatic literature and performance in ancient India. The roots of drama in the Indian subcontinent can be traced back to the Rigveda (1200-1500 BCE), which contains a number of hymns in ...
, thought to have originated around the beginning of the common era, and is officially recognized by
UNESCO The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO ) is a List of specialized agencies of the United Nations, specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) with the aim of promoting world peace and International secur ...
as a
Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity The Proclamation of Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity was made by the Director-General of UNESCO starting in 2001 to raise awareness of intangible cultural heritage—such traditions, rituals, dance, and knowledge—and ...
.


Overview

The fully developed style of Kathakali originated around the 16th century, but its roots are in the temple and folk arts (such as
Krishnanattam Krishnanattam (IAST: Kṛṣṇanāṭṭaṃ) is a temple art in Kerala, India. It is a dance drama and presents the story of Krishna in a series of eight plays and was created by Manaveda (1585–1658 AD), the then Zamorin Raja of Calicut ...
and religious drama of the kingdom of the
Zamorin of Calicut The Samoothiri (Anglicised as Zamorin; Malayalam: , , Arabic: ''Sāmuri'', Portuguese: ''Samorim'', Dutch: ''Samorijn'', Chinese: ''Shamitihsi''Ma Huan's Ying-yai Sheng-lan: 'The Overall Survey of the Ocean's Shores' 433 Translated and Edi ...
) of the southwestern Indian peninsula, which are traceable to at least the 1st millennium CE. A Kathakali performance, like all classical dance arts of India, synthesizes music, vocal performers, choreography and hand and facial gestures together to express ideas. However, Kathakali differs in that it also incorporates movements from ancient Indian martial arts and athletic traditions of South India. Kathakali also differs in that the structure and details of its art form developed in the courts and theatres of Hindu principalities, unlike other classical Indian dances which primarily developed in
Hindu temple A Hindu temple, also known as Mandir, Devasthanam, Pura, or Kovil, is a sacred place where Hindus worship and show their devotion to Hindu deities, deities through worship, sacrifice, and prayers. It is considered the house of the god to who ...
s and monastic schools. The traditional themes of the Kathakali are folk stories, religious legends and spiritual ideas from the Hindu epics and the ., Quote: "Like most traditional modes of storytelling and performance in India, Kathakali plays enact one or more episodes from regional versions of the pan-Indian religious epics (Ramayana and Mahabharata) and Puranas." The vocal performance has traditionally been performed in Sanskritised
Malayalam Malayalam (; , ) is a Dravidian languages, Dravidian language spoken in the Indian state of Kerala and the union territories of Lakshadweep and Puducherry (union territory), Puducherry (Mahé district) by the Malayali people. It is one of ...
. In modern compositions, Indian Kathakali troupes have included women artistes, and adapted Western stories and plays such as those by
Shakespeare William Shakespeare ( 23 April 1564 – 23 April 1616) was an English playwright, poet and actor. He is widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the world's pre-eminent dramatist. He is often called England's natio ...
. In 2011, a performance expressing Christian doctrine was staged for the first time in Kerala.


Etymology and nomenclature

The term ''Kathakali'' is derived from ''katha'' () which means "story or a conversation, or a traditional tale", and ''kaḷi'' () which means "performance" or "play". The dance symbolises the eternal fight between good and evil.


History

Elements and aspects of Kathakali are taken from ancient
Sanskrit Sanskrit (; stem form ; nominal singular , ,) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in northwest South Asia after its predecessor languages had Trans-cultural ...
texts such as the
Natya Shastra The ''Nāṭya Shāstra'' (, ''Nāṭyaśāstra'') is a Sanskrit treatise on the performing arts. The text is attributed to sage Bharata, and its first complete compilation is dated to between 200 BCE and 200 CE, but estimates vary b ...
. The Natya Shastra is attributed to sage Bharata, and its first complete compilation is dated to between 200 BC and 200 AD, but estimates vary between 500 BC and 500 AD. The most studied version of the Natya Shastra text consists of about 6000 verses structured into 36 chapters. The text, states Natalia Lidova, describes the theory of Tāṇḍava dance (
Shiva Shiva (; , ), also known as Mahadeva (; , , Help:IPA/Sanskrit, ɐɦaːd̪eːʋɐh and Hara, is one of the Hindu deities, principal deities of Hinduism. He is the God in Hinduism, Supreme Being in Shaivism, one of the major traditions w ...
), the theory of rasa, of bhāva, expression, gestures, acting techniques, basic steps, standing postures–all of which are part of Indian classical dances including Kathakali. Dance and performance arts, states this ancient Hindu text, are a form of expression of spiritual ideas, virtues and the essence of scriptures.; Also see chapter 36 The roots of Kathakali are unclear. Jones and Ryan state it is more than 500 years old. Kathakali emerged as a distinct genre of performance art during the 16th and 17th centuries in
Kerala Kerala ( , ) is a States and union territories of India, state on the Malabar Coast of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, following the passage of the States Reorganisation Act, by combining Malayalam-speaking regions of the erstwhile ...
. The roots of Kathakali, states Mahinder Singh, are more ancient and some 1500 years old.


Links to older performance arts: Kutiyattam, Krishnanattam and Koothu

, FACT Jayadeva Varma According to
Farley Richmond Farley may refer to: People * Farley (name) Places Antarctica * Mount Farley * Farley Massif Australia * Farley, New South Wales * Farley railway station England * Farley, Derbyshire * Farley, Staffordshire * Farley, Surrey * Farley, Wiltshire ...
and other scholars, Kathakali shares many elements such as costumes with ancient Indian performance arts such as ''Kutiyattam'' (classical Sanskrit drama) and medieval era ''Krishnanattam'', even though a detailed examination shows differences. ''Kutiyattam'', adds Richmond, is "one of the oldest continuously performed theatre forms in India, and it may well be the oldest surviving art form of the ancient world". ''Kutiyattam'', traditionally, was performed in theatres specially designed and attached to Hindu temples, particularly dedicated to the
Shiva Shiva (; , ), also known as Mahadeva (; , , Help:IPA/Sanskrit, ɐɦaːd̪eːʋɐh and Hara, is one of the Hindu deities, principal deities of Hinduism. He is the God in Hinduism, Supreme Being in Shaivism, one of the major traditions w ...
and later to
Krishna Krishna (; Sanskrit language, Sanskrit: कृष्ण, ) is a major deity in Hinduism. He is worshipped as the eighth avatar of Vishnu and also as the Supreme God (Hinduism), Supreme God in his own right. He is the god of protection, c ...
. The designs of these theatres usually matched the dimensions and architecture recommended as "ideal" in the ancient ''Natya Shastra'', and some of them could house 500 viewers. ''Krishnanattam'' is the likely immediate precursor of Kathakali, states Zarrilli. ''Krishnanattam'' is dance-drama art form about the life and activities of Hindu god
Krishna Krishna (; Sanskrit language, Sanskrit: कृष्ण, ) is a major deity in Hinduism. He is worshipped as the eighth avatar of Vishnu and also as the Supreme God (Hinduism), Supreme God in his own right. He is the god of protection, c ...
, that developed under the sponsorship of Sri Manavedan Raja, the ruler of Calicut (1585-1658 AD). The traditional legend states that Kottarakkara Thampuran (also known as Vira Kerala Varma) requested the services of a ''Krishnanattam'' troupe, but his request was denied. So Kottarakkara Thampuran created another art form based on ''Krishnanattam'', called it ''Ramanattam'' because the early plays were based on the Hindu epic ''
Ramayana The ''Ramayana'' (; ), also known as ''Valmiki Ramayana'', as traditionally attributed to Valmiki, is a smriti text (also described as a Sanskrit literature, Sanskrit Indian epic poetry, epic) from ancient India, one of the two important epics ...
'', which over time diversified beyond ''Ramayana'' and became popular as 'Kathakali'. Another related performance art is ''Ashtapadiyattom'', a dance drama based on the Gita Govinda of the twelfth-century poet
Jayadeva Jayadeva (; born ), also spelt Jaideva, was a Sanskrit poet during the 12th century. He is most known for his epic poem ''Gita Govinda'' which concentrates on Krishna's love with the ''gopi'', Radha, in a rite of spring. This poem, which presen ...
, told the story of Krishna embodied as a humble cowherd, his consort Radha, and three cow girls. Kathakali also incorporates several elements from other traditional and ritualistic art forms like Mudiyettu, Theyyam and Padayani besides folk arts such as Porattu Nadakam that shares ideas with the Tamil ''Therukoothu'' tradition. The south Indian martial art of ''
Kalarippayattu Kalaripayattu (), also known simply as Kalari, is an Indian martial art that originated on the southwestern coast of India, in what is now Kerala, during the 3rd century BCE. Etymology Kalaripayattu is a martial art which developed out of co ...
'' has also influenced Kathakali. Despite the links, ''Kathakali'' is different from temple-driven arts such as "Krishnanattam", ''Kutiyattam'' and others because unlike the older arts where the dancer-actor also had to be the vocal artist, ''Kathakali'' separated these roles allowing the dancer-actor to excel in and focus on choreography while the vocal artists focused on delivering their lines. ''Kathakali'' also expanded the performance repertoire, style and standardized the costume making it easier for the audience to understand the various performances and new plays.


Repertoire

''Kathakali'' is structured around plays called ''Attakatha'' (literally, "enacted story"), written in Sanskritized Malayalam. These plays are written in a particular format that helps identify the "action" and the "dialogue" parts of the performance. The ''Sloka'' part is the metrical verse, written in third person – often entirely in Sanskrit - describing the action part of the choreography. The ''Pada'' part contains the dialogue part. These ''Attakatha'' texts grant considerable flexibility to the actors to improvise. Historically, all these plays were derived from Hindu texts such as the ''Ramayana'', the ''Mahabharata'' and the ''
Bhagavata Purana The ''Bhagavata Purana'' (; ), also known as the ''Srimad Bhagavatam (Śrīmad Bhāgavatam)'', ''Srimad Bhagavata Mahapurana'' () or simply ''Bhagavata (Bhāgavata)'', is one of Hinduism's eighteen major Puranas (''Mahapuranas'') and one ...
''. A ''Kathakali'' repertoire is an
opera Opera is a form of History of theatre#European theatre, Western theatre in which music is a fundamental component and dramatic roles are taken by Singing, singers. Such a "work" (the literal translation of the Italian word "opera") is typically ...
tic performance where an ancient story is playfully dramatized. Traditionally, a Kathakali performance is long, starting at dusk and continuing through dawn, with interludes and breaks for the performers and audience. Some plays continued over several nights, starting at dusk every day. Modern performances are shorter. The stage with seating typically in open grounds outside a temple, but in some places, special theatres called ''Kuttampalam'' built inside the temple compounds have been in use. The stage is mostly bare, or with a few drama-related items. One item, called a Kalivilakku (kali meaning dance; ''vilakku'' meaning lamp), can be traced back to Kutiyattam. In both traditions, the performance happens in the front of a huge Kalivilakku with its thick wick sunk in coconut oil, burning with a yellow light. Traditionally, before the advent of electricity, this special large lamp provided light during the night. As the play progressed, the actor-dancers would gather around this lamp so that the audience could see what they are expressing. The performance involves actor-dancers in the front, supported by musicians in the background stage on right (audience's left) and with vocalists in the front of the stage (historically so they could be heard by the audience before the age of microphone and speakers). Typically, all roles are played by male actor-dancers, though in modern performances, women have been welcomed into the Kathakali tradition.


Costumes

Of all classical Indian dances, Kathakali has the most elaborate costuming consisting of head dresses(കിരീടം),Vest, face masks and vividly painted faces. It typically takes several evening hours to prepare a Kathakali troupe to get ready for a play. Costumes have made Kathakali's popularity extend beyond adults, with children absorbed by the colors, makeup, lights and sounds of the performances. The makeup follows an accepted code, that helps the audience easily identify the archetypal characters such as gods, goddesses, demons, demonesses, saints, animals and characters of a story. Seven basic makeup types are used in Kathakali, namely ''Pachcha'' (green), ''Pazhuppu'' (ripe), ''Kathi'', ''Kari'', ''Thaadi'', ''Minukku'' and ''Teppu (red)''. These vary with the styles and the predominant colours made from rice paste and vegetable colors that are applied on the face. Pachcha (green) with lips painted brilliant coral red portrays noble characters and sages such as
Krishna Krishna (; Sanskrit language, Sanskrit: कृष्ण, ) is a major deity in Hinduism. He is worshipped as the eighth avatar of Vishnu and also as the Supreme God (Hinduism), Supreme God in his own right. He is the god of protection, c ...
,
Vishnu Vishnu (; , , ), also known as Narayana and Hari, is one of the Hindu deities, principal deities of Hinduism. He is the supreme being within Vaishnavism, one of the major traditions within contemporary Hinduism, and the god of preservation ( ...
,
Rama Rama (; , , ) is a major deity in Hinduism. He is worshipped as the seventh and one of the most popular avatars of Vishnu. In Rama-centric Hindu traditions, he is considered the Supreme Being. Also considered as the ideal man (''maryāda' ...
,
Yudhishthira Yudhishthira (Sanskrit: युधिष्ठिर, ud̪ʱiʂʈʰiɾᵊ IAST: ''Yudhiṣṭhira''), also known as Dharmaputra, is the eldest among the five Pandavas, and is also one of the central characters of the ancient Indian epic ''Ma ...
,
Arjuna Arjuna (, , Help:IPA/Sanskrit, �ɾd͡ʒun̪ə is one of the central characters of the ancient Hindu epic ''Mahabharata''. He is the third of the five Pandava brothers, and is widely regarded as the most important and renowned among them. ...
,
Nala Nala () is a legendary king of ancient Nishadha kingdom and the central protagonist of the '' Nalopakhyana'', a sub-narrative within the Indian epic '' Mahabharata'', found in its third book, '' Vana Parva'' (Book of the Forest). He is renown ...
and philosopher-kings. ''Thaadi'' (red) is the code for someone with an evil streak such as
Dushasana Dushasana (), also spelled Duhshasana, Dussasana or Duhsasana, also known as Sushasana, is an antagonist in the Hindu epic '' Mahabharata''. He was second eldest among the Kaurava princes and the younger brother of Duryodhana. Dushasana's jea ...
and
Hiranyakashipu Hiranyakashipu (, ), also known as Hiranyakashyap, was a daitya king of the asuras in the Puranas. In Hinduism, Hiranyakashipu's younger brother, Hiranyaksha, was slain by the Varaha (boar) avatar of Vishnu. Angered by this, Hiranyakashipu ...
. Some characters have a green face (representing heroic or excellence as a warrior) with red dots or lines on their cheeks or red-coloured moustache or red-streaked beard (representing evil inner nature), while others have a full face and beard coloured red, the latter implying excessively evil characters. Kari (black) is the code for forest dwellers, hunters, and middle ground character. Demonesses and treacherous characters are also painted black but with streaks or patches of red. Yellow is the code for monks, mendicants, and women. ''Minukka'' (radiant, shining) with a warm yellow, orange or saffron typifies noble, virtuous feminine characters such as
Sita Sita (; ), also known as Siya, Jānaki and Maithili, is a Hindu goddess and the female protagonist of the Hindu epic ''Ramayana''. Sita is the consort of Rama, the avatar of god Vishnu, and is regarded as an avatar of goddess Lakshmi. She is t ...
, Panchali and Mohini. Men who act the roles of women also add a false top knot to their left and decorate it in a style common to the region. Vella Thadi (white beard) represents a divine being, someone with virtuous inner state and consciousness such as
Hanuman Hanuman (; , ), also known as Maruti, Bajrangabali, and Anjaneya, is a deity in Hinduism, revered as a divine ''vanara'', and a devoted companion of the deity Rama. Central to the ''Ramayana'', Hanuman is celebrated for his unwavering devotio ...
. ''Teppu'' is for special characters found in Hindu mythologies, such as
Garuda Garuda (; ; Vedic Sanskrit: , ) is a Hindu deity who is primarily depicted as the mount (''vahana'') of the Hindu god Vishnu. This divine creature is mentioned in the Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain faiths. Garuda is also the half-brother of the D ...
, Jatayu and
Hamsa The ''hamsa'' (, referring to images of 'the five fingers of the hand'),Zenner, 1988p. 284World Institute for Advanced Phenomenological Research and Learning (Belmont, Estados Unidos), 1991p. 219Drazin, 2009p. 268 also known as the hand of Fa ...
who act as messengers or carriers, but do not fit the other categories. Face masks and headgear is added to accentuate the inner nature of the characters. The garments colours have a similar community accepted code of silent communication. The character types, states Zarrilli, reflect the
Guṇa () is a concept in Hinduism, which can be translated as "quality, peculiarity, attribute, property".Samkhya Samkhya or Sankhya (; ) is a dualistic orthodox school of Hindu philosophy. It views reality as composed of two independent principles, '' Puruṣa'' ('consciousness' or spirit) and '' Prakṛti'' (nature or matter, including the human mind a ...
school of
Hindu philosophy Hindu philosophy or Vedic philosophy is the set of philosophical systems that developed in tandem with the first Hinduism, Hindu religious traditions during the Iron Age in India, iron and Classical India, classical ages of India. In Indian ...
. There are three Guṇas, according to this philosophy, that have always been and continue to be present in all things and beings in the world.James G. Lochtefeld, Guna, in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M, Vol. 1, Rosen Publishing, , page 265 These three ''Guṇas'' are ' (goodness, constructive, harmonious, virtuous), ' (passion, aimless action, dynamic, egoistic), and ' (darkness, destructive, chaotic, viciousness). All of these three ''gunas'' (good, evil, active) are present in everyone and everything, it is the proportion that is different, according to the Hindu worldview. The interplay of these ''gunas'' defines the character of someone or something, and the costumes and face colouring in Kathakali often combines the various colour codes to give complexity and depth to the actor-dancers.


Makeup

In Kathakali, the makeup known as Chutti (ചുട്ടി) is both symbolic and artistic. It goes beyond mere decoration; the colors and patterns are carefully designed to represent and distinguish various character types * Green (പച്ച): This base color represents noble and heroic characters who embody virtue, such as kings, divine beings, and idealized heroes. * Red and Black Accents (കത്തി and കരി): These are used to depict villainous or demonic characters. Kathi (knife) characters are anti-heroes or arrogant villains, while Kari (black) denotes demons or forest-dwelling evil beings. * Soft Yellow or Orange (''മിനുക്കു''): Typically applied to female characters or sages, this coloring signifies gentleness, spirituality, and inner peace.


Acting

Like many classical Indian arts, Kathakali is choreography as much as it is acting. It is said to be one of the most difficult styles to execute on stage, with young artists preparing for their roles for several years before they get a chance to do it on stage. The actors speak a "
sign language Sign languages (also known as signed languages) are languages that use the visual-manual modality to convey meaning, instead of spoken words. Sign languages are expressed through manual articulation in combination with #Non-manual elements, no ...
", where the word part of the character's dialogue is expressed through "hand signs (mudras)", while emotions and mood is expressed through "facial and eye" movements. In parallel, vocalists in the background sing rhythmically the play, matching the beats of the orchestra playing, thus unifying the ensemble into a resonant oneness. Several ancient Sanskrit texts such as ''
Natya Shastra The ''Nāṭya Shāstra'' (, ''Nāṭyaśāstra'') is a Sanskrit treatise on the performing arts. The text is attributed to sage Bharata, and its first complete compilation is dated to between 200 BCE and 200 CE, but estimates vary b ...
'' and ''Hastha Lakshanadeepika'' discuss hand gestures or mudras. Kathakali follows the ''Hastha Lakshanadeepika'' most closely, unlike other classical dances of India. There are 24 main
mudras A mudra (; , , "seal", "mark", or "gesture"; ) is a symbolic or ritual gesture or pose in Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism. While some mudras involve the entire body, most are performed with the hands and fingers. As well as being spiritual ges ...
, and numerous more minor ones in Kathakali. There are nine facial expressions called ''
Navarasas Indian art evolved with an emphasis on inducing special spiritual or philosophical states in the audience, or with representing them symbolically. Rasas in the performing arts The theory of rasas still forms the aesthetic underpinning of a ...
'', which each actor masters through facial muscle control during his education, in order to express the emotional state of the character in the play. The theory behind the ''Navarasas'' is provided by classical Sanskrit texts such as Natya Shastra, but sometimes with different names, and these are found in other classical Indian dances as well. The ''Navarasas'' express nine ''bhava-''s (emotions) in Kathakali as follows: # ''Sringara'' expresses ''Rati'' (love, pleasure, delight) # ''Hasya'' expresses ''Hasa'' (comic, laugh, mocking) # ''Karuna'' expresses ''Shoka'' (pathetic, sad) # ''Raudra'' expresses ''Krodha'' (anger, fury) # ''Vira'' expresses ''Utsaha'' (vigor, enthusiasm, heroic) # ''Bhayanaka'' expresses ''Bhaya'' (fear, concern, worry) # ''Bibhatsa'' expresses ''Jugupsa'' (disgust, repulsive) # ''Adbhuta'' expresses ''Vismaya'' (wondrous, marvel, curious) # ''Shanta'' expresses ''Sama'' (peace, tranquility).


Sequence

A Kathakali performance typically starts with artists tuning their instruments and warming up with beats, signalling to the arriving audience that the artists are getting ready and the preparations are on. The repertoire includes a series of performances. First comes the ''Thodayam'' and ''Purappadu'' performances, which are preliminary 'pure' (abstract) dances that emphasize skill and pure motion. ''Thodayam'' is performed behind a curtain and without all the costumes, while ''Purappadu'' is performed without the curtain and in full costumes. The expressive part of the performance, which constitutes the dance-drama, is split into four types: ''Kalasham'' (major and most common), ''Iratti'' (special, used with battles-related ''Chempata'' rhythm), ''Thonkaram'' (similar to ''Iratti'' but different music), and ''Nalamiratti'' (used for exits or link between the chapters of the play). The entrance of characters onto the Kathakali stage can be varied. Many of these ways are not found in other major Indian classical dance traditions. Kathakali employs several methods: # direct without special effects or curtain # through the audience, a method that engages the audience, led by torchbearers since Kathakali is typically a night performance # tease and suspense called ''nokku'' or ''thirasheela'' or ''tiranokku'', where the character is slowly revealed by the use of a curtain. The "tease" method is typically used for characters with hidden, dangerous intentions.


Songs and musical instruments

The play is in the form of verses that are metered and lyrical, sung by vocalists whose voice has been trained to various melodies (''ragas''), music and synchronized with the dance-acting on the stage. The vocalists not only deliver the lines, but help set the context and express the inner state of the character by modulating their voice. For example, anger is expressed by the use of sharp high voice and pleading is expressed by the use of a sad tone. Music is central to a Kathakali performance. It sets the mood and triggers emotions resonant with the nature of the scene. It also sets the rhythm to which the actor-dancers perform the choreography and scenes. Some major musical patterns, according to Clifford and Betty, that go with the moods and content of the scene are: ''Chempada'' (most common and default that applies to a range of moods, in battles and fights between good and evil, also to conclude a scene); ''Chempa'' music (depict tension, dispute, disagreement between lovers or competing ideas); ''Panchari'' (for odious, preparatory such as sharpening a sword); ''Triputa'' (thought-provoking, scenes involving sages and teachers); ''Adantha'' (scenes involving kings or divine beings); ''Muri Adantha'' musical style (for comic, light-hearted, or fast-moving scenes involving heroic or anger-driven activity). Many musical instruments are used in Kathakali. Three major drums found are ''Maddalam''(barrel-shaped), Chenda (cylindrical drum played with curved sticks) and ''Idakka'' (
Idakka The idakka (), also spelt edaykka/edakka, is an hourglass-shaped drum from Kerala in south India, very similar to the pan-Indian damaru. While the damaru is played by rattling knotted cords against the resonators, the idakka is played with a ...
, hourglass-shaped drum with muted and melodious notes played when female characters perform). Traditional plays Over five hundred Kathakali plays called '' Aattakatha'' exist, most of which were written before the 20th century. Of these, about four dozen are most actively performed. These plays are sophisticated literary works, states Zarrilli, and only five authors have written more than two plays. The late 17th century Unnayi Variyar, in his short life, produced four plays which are traditionally considered the most expressive of the Kathakali
playwright A playwright or dramatist is a person who writes play (theatre), plays, which are a form of drama that primarily consists of dialogue between Character (arts), characters and is intended for Theatre, theatrical performance rather than just Readin ...
s. Typically, his four plays are performed on four nights, and they relate to the mythical Hindu love story of
Nala Nala () is a legendary king of ancient Nishadha kingdom and the central protagonist of the '' Nalopakhyana'', a sub-narrative within the Indian epic '' Mahabharata'', found in its third book, '' Vana Parva'' (Book of the Forest). He is renown ...
and
Damayanti Damayanti () is a heroine in ancient Indian literature, primarily known for her role in the episode of ''Nala and Damayanti, Nalopakhyana'', which is embedded within the ''Vana Parva'' (the third book) of the epic ''Mahabharata'' (c. 400 BCE – ...
. The Nala-Damayanti story has roots in the texts of 1st millennium BCE and is found in the Mahabharata, but the Kathakali play version develops the characters, their inner states, the emotions and their circumstances far more than the older texts. A tradition Kathakali play typically consists of two interconnected parts, the third-person ''Shlokas'' and first-person ''Padams''. The ''Shlokas'' are in Sanskrit and describe the action in the scene, while ''Padams'' are dialogues in Malayalam (Sanskritized) for the actors to interpret and play. A ''Padam'' consists of three parts: a ''
Pallavi A pallavi is a refrain in carnatic music, commonly associated with South India. It is the first part of any formal composition ( Krithi) which has three segments – Pallavi, Anupallavi and Charanam (which can be one or more). Pallavi is usuall ...
'' (refrain), '' Anupallavi'' (subrefrain) and ''
Charanam Charanam (meaning ''foot'') in Carnatic music (South Indian classical music) is usually the end section of a composition which is sung after the anupallavi. There may be multiple ''charanams'' in a composition which make up different stanzas, ...
'' (foot), all of which are set to one of the ancient ''
Raga A raga ( ; , ; ) is a melodic framework for improvisation in Indian classical music akin to a musical mode, melodic mode. It is central to classical Indian music. Each raga consists of an array of melodic structures with musical motifs; and, fro ...
s'' (
musical mode In music theory, the term mode or ''modus'' is used in a number of distinct senses, depending on context. Its most common use may be described as a type of musical scale coupled with a set of characteristic melodic and harmonic behaviors. It ...
), based on the mood and context as outlined in ancient Sanskrit texts such as the ''Natya Shastra''. In historic practice of a play performance, each ''Padam'' was enacted twice by the actor while the vocalists sang the lines repeatedly as the actor-dancer played his role out. The traditional plays were long, many written to be performed all night, some such as those based on the ''
Ramayana The ''Ramayana'' (; ), also known as ''Valmiki Ramayana'', as traditionally attributed to Valmiki, is a smriti text (also described as a Sanskrit literature, Sanskrit Indian epic poetry, epic) from ancient India, one of the two important epics ...
'' and the ''
Mahabharata The ''Mahābhārata'' ( ; , , ) is one of the two major Sanskrit Indian epic poetry, epics of ancient India revered as Smriti texts in Hinduism, the other being the ''Ramayana, Rāmāyaṇa''. It narrates the events and aftermath of the Kuru ...
'' written to be performed for many sequential nights. However, others such as the ''Prahlada Charitham'' have been composed so that they can be performed within four hours. Modern productions have extracted parts of these legendary plays, to be typically performed within 3 to 4 hours.


Offshoots and modern adaptations

Kathakali is still practiced in its Traditional ways and there are experimental plays based on European classics and Shakespeare's plays. Recent productions have adapted stories from other cultures and mythologies, such as those of Miguel de Cervantes, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and
William Shakespeare William Shakespeare ( 23 April 1564 – 23 April 1616) was an English playwright, poet and actor. He is widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the world's pre-eminent dramatist. He is often called England's nation ...
.


Styles: Sampradayam

Kathakali has lineages or distinctive schools of play interpretation and dance performance called ''Sampradayam''. These developed in part because of the
gurukula A () is a traditional system of religious education in India with ('students' or 'disciples') living near or with the guru in the same house for a period of time where they learn and get educated by their guruji. Etymology The word is a com ...
system of transmission from one generation to the next. By the 19th-century, many such styles were in vogue in Kerala, of which two major styles have crystallized and survived into the modern age. The ''Kidangoor'' style is one of the two, that developed in
Travancore The kingdom of Travancore (), also known as the kingdom of Thiruvithamkoor () or later as Travancore State, was a kingdom that lasted from until 1949. It was ruled by the Travancore Royal Family from Padmanabhapuram, and later Thiruvanan ...
, and it is strongly influenced by ''Kutiyattam'', while also drawing elements of ''Ramanattam'' and ''Kalladikkotan''. It is traditionally attributed to Nalanunni, under the patronage of Utram Tirunal Maharaja (1815-1861). The ''Kalluvazhi'' style is second of the two, which developed in
Palakkad Palakkad (), Renaming of cities in India, also known as Palghat, historically known as Palakkattussery, is a city and a municipality in the States and union territories of India, Indian state of Kerala. It is the administrative headquarters of P ...
(
Olappamanna Mana Olappamanna Mana is a heritage building, the ancestral home of a Nambuthiri family by name, ''Olappammanna''. The building, an ''Ettukettu'', constructed in Architecture of Kerala, Kerala architectural style, is situated in Vellinezhi, a village ...
) in central Kerala, and it is a synthesis of the older ''Kaplingadan'' and ''Kalladikkotan'' performance arts. It is traditionally attributed to Unniri Panikkar, in a
Brahmin Brahmin (; ) is a ''Varna (Hinduism), varna'' (theoretical social classes) within Hindu society. The other three varnas are the ''Kshatriya'' (rulers and warriors), ''Vaishya'' (traders, merchants, and farmers), and ''Shudra'' (labourers). Th ...
household (~1850), and became the dominant style established in
Kerala Kalamandalam Kerala Kalamandalam, a deemed-to-be-University of Art and Culture by the Government of India, is a major centre for learning Indian performing arts, especially those that developed in the country's southern states, with special emphasis on tho ...
– a school of performance arts.


Training centres and awards

Kathakali has traditionally been an art that has continued from one generation to the next through a
guru Guru ( ; International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration, IAST: ''guru'') is a Sanskrit term for a "mentor, guide, expert, or master" of certain knowledge or field. In pan-Indian religions, Indian traditions, a guru is more than a teacher: tr ...
-disciples (''gurukkula'') based training system. Artist families tended to pick promising talent from within their own extended families, sometimes from outside the family, and the new budding artist typically stayed with his guru as a student and treated like a member of the family. The guru provided both the theoretical and practical training to the student, and the disciple would accompany the guru to formal performances. In modern times, professional schools train students of Kathakali, with some such as those in Trivandrum Margi school emphasizing a single teacher for various courses, while others such as the Kerala Kalamandalam school wherein students learn subjects from different teachers. Kathakali schools are now found all over India, as well as in parts of Western Europe and the United States. A typical Kathakali training centre auditions for students, examining health and physical fitness necessary for the aerobic and active stage performance, the body flexibility, sense of rhythm and an interview to gauge how sincere the student is in performance arts. A typical course work in Kathakali emphasizes physical conditioning and daily exercises, yoga and body massage to tone the muscles and sculpt the growing body, along with studies and dance practice. Per ancient Indian tradition, young students continue to start their year by giving symbolic gifts to the
guru Guru ( ; International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration, IAST: ''guru'') is a Sanskrit term for a "mentor, guide, expert, or master" of certain knowledge or field. In pan-Indian religions, Indian traditions, a guru is more than a teacher: tr ...
, such as a few coins with betel leaves, while the teacher gives the student a loincloth, a welcome and blessings. Kathakali is still hugely male-dominated, but since the 1970s, women have made entry into the art form on a recognisable scale. The central Kerala temple town of
Tripunithura Thrippunithura or Tripunithura (Malayalam:തൃപ്പൂണിത്തുറ) is a prominent historical and residential region in the city of Kochi in Kerala, India. Located about 7 km (4 mi) from the city centre, Tripunithura wa ...
has a ladies' troupe (
Tripunithura Kathakali Kendram Ladies Troupe file:Tripunithura Kathakali Kendram Ladies Troupe, Kerela.jpg, The Nari Shakti Puraskar (women's power award) is awarded by the President of India to the Tripunithura Kathakali Kendram Ladies Troupe The Tripunithura Kathakali Kendram Ladies Troupe ...
) who perform Kathakali. The troupe won a national award, i.e.
Nari Shakti Puraskar The Nari Shakti Puraskar () is an annual award given by the Ministry of Women and Child Development of the Government of India to individual women or to institutions that work towards the cause of women empowerment. It is presented by the presi ...
, for their work.


Awards for Kathakali artistes

*
Sangeet Natak Akademi Sangeet Natak Akademi (The National Academy of Music, Dance and Drama in English language, English) is the national level academy for performing arts set up by the Government of India. It is an autonomous body of the Ministry of Culture (India) ...
Awardees - Kathakali (1956–2005) * Nambeesan Smaraka Awards — For artistic performances related kathakali (1992–2008) * International Centre for Kathakali Award


Related dance forms

The theory and foundations of ''Kathakali'' are same as other major classical Indian dances, traceable to Sanskrit texts such as the ''
Natya Shastra The ''Nāṭya Shāstra'' (, ''Nāṭyaśāstra'') is a Sanskrit treatise on the performing arts. The text is attributed to sage Bharata, and its first complete compilation is dated to between 200 BCE and 200 CE, but estimates vary b ...
'', but the expression style in each is very different and distinctive. ''Kathakali'' is different from a similar-sounding ''
Kathak ''Kathak'' is one of the eight major forms of Classical Indian dance, Indian classical dance. Its origin is attributed to the traveling bards in ancient northern India known as ''Kathakar'' ("storyteller"), who communicated stories from the ...
'', though both are Indian classical dance traditions of "story play" wherein the stories have been traditionally derived from the Hindu epics and the Puranas. Kathak is an ancient performance art that emerged in North India, with roots in traveling bards retelling mythical and spiritual stories through dance-acting. Kathak traditionally has included female actor-dancers, unlike Kathakali which has traditionally been performed by an all-male troupe. Kathak deploys much simpler costumes, makeup and no face masks. Both dance forms employ choreography, face and hand gestures traceable to the ''Natya Shastra'', but ''Kathak'' generally moves around a straight leg and torso movements, with no martial art leaps and jumps like Kathakali. Kathak uses the stage space more, and does not typically include separate vocalists. Both deploy a host of similar traditional Indian musical instruments. Kathakali-style, costume rich, musical drama are found in other cultures. For example, the Japanese ''
Noh is a major form of classical Japanese dance-drama that has been performed since the 14th century. It is Japan's oldest major theater art that is still regularly performed today. Noh is often based on tales from traditional literature featuri ...
'' (能) integrates masks, costumes and various props in a dance-based performance, requiring highly trained actors and musicians. Emotions are primarily conveyed by stylized gestures while the costumes communicate the nature of the characters in a ''Noh'' performance, as in Kathakali. In both, costumed men have traditionally performed all the roles including those of women in the play. The training regimen and initiation of the dance-actors in both cultures have many similarities.
Kabuki is a classical form of Theatre of Japan, Japanese theatre, mixing dramatic performance with Japanese traditional dance, traditional dance. Kabuki theatre is known for its heavily stylised performances, its glamorous, highly decorated costumes ...
, another Japanese art form, has similarities to Kathakali. Jīngjù, a Chinese art of dance-acting (''zuo''), like Kathakali presents artists with elaborate masks, costumes and colorfully painted faces.
Balinese dance Balinese dance (; ''(igélan Bali)'') is an ancient dance tradition that is part of the religious and artistic expression among the Balinese people of Bali island, Indonesia. Balinese dance is dynamic, angular, and intensely expressive. Balin ...
as well as tibetan art forms also shares similarities.


See also

*
Koodiyattam Koodiyattam (; IAST: kūṭiyāṭṭaṁ; ) is a traditional performing art form in the state of Kerala, India. It is a combination of ancient Sanskrit theatre with elements of ''Koothu'', an ancient performing art from the Sangam era. It ...
*
Krishnanattam Krishnanattam (IAST: Kṛṣṇanāṭṭaṃ) is a temple art in Kerala, India. It is a dance drama and presents the story of Krishna in a series of eight plays and was created by Manaveda (1585–1658 AD), the then Zamorin Raja of Calicut ...
*
Mohiniyattam ''Mohiniyattam'' is an Indian classical dance form originating from the state of Kerala. The dance gets its name from Mohini – the female enchantress avatar of the Hindu deity Vishnu, who helps the devas prevail over the asuras using h ...
*
Chakyar koothu Chakyar Koothu (pronounced ) is a performance art from Kerala, India. It is primarily a type of highly refined monologue where the performer narrates episodes from Hindu epics (such as the ''Ramayana'' and the ''Mahabharata'') and stories from ...
*
Nangiar koothu ''Nangiar koothu'' or ''Nangyar Koothu'' () is an allied traditional art of Kutiyattam, an age-old Sanskrit drama tradition of India. It is performed traditionally by the women of the Ambalavasi Nambiar community of Kerala, known as ''Nangyaram ...
*
Garudan Thookkam Garudan Thookkam is a ritual art form performed in certain Kali temples in Southern and Central parts of Kerala ( former Travancore kingdom) in south India. The people who dress up as Garuda perform the dance. After the dance performance, the h ...
*
Ottan Thullal Ottan Thullal (or ''Ottamthullal'') is a recite-and-dance art-form of Kerala, India. It was introduced in the eighteenth century by Kunchan Nambiar, one of the Malayalam triumvirate poets, Prachina Kavithrayam (three famous Malayalam-language poe ...
*
Koothambalam Koothambalam or Kuttampalam (Kuṭṭampalam) meaning temple theatre or play house by scholars is a closed hall for staging '' Koothu ( (Kūttu)'', ''Nangiar koothu( (Kūttu)'' and '' Koodiyattam(Kūṭiyāṭṭam)'', the ancient ritualistic art ...
*
Kerala Kalamandalam Kerala Kalamandalam, a deemed-to-be-University of Art and Culture by the Government of India, is a major centre for learning Indian performing arts, especially those that developed in the country's southern states, with special emphasis on tho ...
*
Panchavadyam Panchavadyam (Malayalam: പഞ്ചവാദ്യം), literally meaning an orchestra of five instruments, is basically a temple art form that has evolved in Kerala. Of the five instruments, four — timila, maddalam, ilathalam and idak ...
*
Kabuki is a classical form of Theatre of Japan, Japanese theatre, mixing dramatic performance with Japanese traditional dance, traditional dance. Kabuki theatre is known for its heavily stylised performances, its glamorous, highly decorated costumes ...
*
Peking Opera Peking opera, or Beijing opera (), is the most dominant form of Chinese opera, which combines instrumental music, vocal performance, mime, martial arts, dance and acrobatics. It arose in Beijing in the mid-Qing dynasty (1644–1912) and became ...
*
Noh is a major form of classical Japanese dance-drama that has been performed since the 14th century. It is Japan's oldest major theater art that is still regularly performed today. Noh is often based on tales from traditional literature featuri ...
*
Bugaku is a Japanese traditional dance that has been performed to select elites, mostly in the Japanese imperial court, for over twelve hundred years. In this way, it has been known only to the nobility, although after World War II, the dance was ope ...


Notes


References


Sources

* * Alice Boner (1935), "Kathakali", ''Journal of the Indian Society of Oriental Art'', June 1935, pp 1–14. * * * * * * * * * * * *
Table of Contents
* * * * * * *


External links

{{Hindudharma Theatre of India Arts of Kerala Classical theatre of india