Kambo, also known as sapo (from ) or vacina-do-sapo, is substance derived from the natural secretions of an

amphibian Amphibians are ectothermic, anamniote, anamniotic, tetrapod, four-limbed vertebrate animals that constitute the class (biology), class Amphibia. In its broadest sense, it is a paraphyletic group encompassing all Tetrapod, tetrapods, but excl ...

belonging to the Phyllomedusa family. Commonly the dried skin secretions of the giant leaf frog, known as the ''kambô'' in Portuguese, a species of frog, are used for ritualistic purposes with a strong religious and spiritual components. Less commonly it is used as a transdermal medicine, however, evidence for its effectiveness is limited. Kambo is usually used in a group setting, called a kambo circle or kambo ceremony. The effects on humans usually include

tachycardia Tachycardia, also called tachyarrhythmia, is a heart rate that exceeds the normal resting rate. In general, a resting heart rate over 100 beats per minute is accepted as tachycardia in adults. Heart rates above the resting rate may be normal ...

nausea Nausea is a diffuse sensation of unease and discomfort, sometimes perceived as an urge to vomit. It can be a debilitating symptom if prolonged and has been described as placing discomfort on the chest, abdomen, or back of the throat. Over 30 d ...

vomiting Vomiting (also known as emesis, puking and throwing up) is the forceful expulsion of the contents of one's stomach through the mouth and sometimes the nose. Vomiting can be the result of ailments like food poisoning, gastroenteritis, pre ...

, and

diarrhea Diarrhea (American English), also spelled diarrhoea or diarrhœa (British English), is the condition of having at least three loose, liquid, or watery bowel movements in a day. It often lasts for a few days and can result in dehydration d ...

. A meta-review of 50 studies in which 11 cases of acute intoxication were examined found that extreme cases have included

psychosis In psychopathology, psychosis is a condition in which a person is unable to distinguish, in their experience of life, between what is and is not real. Examples of psychotic symptoms are delusions, hallucinations, and disorganized or inco ...

(occasionally severe),

SIADH Syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion (SIADH), also known as the syndrome of inappropriate antidiuresis (SIAD), is characterized by a physiologically inappropriate release of antidiuretic hormone (ADH) either from the posterio ...

, kidney damage (including acute renal failure),

pancreas The pancreas (plural pancreases, or pancreata) is an Organ (anatomy), organ of the Digestion, digestive system and endocrine system of vertebrates. In humans, it is located in the abdominal cavity, abdomen behind the stomach and functions as a ...

damage,

liver damage Liver disease, or hepatic disease, is any of many diseases of the liver. If long-lasting it is termed chronic liver disease. Although the diseases differ in detail, liver diseases often have features in common. Liver diseases File:Ground glas ...

including toxic hepatitis,

dermatomyositis Dermatomyositis (DM) is a Chronic condition, long-term inflammatory disorder, inflammatory Autoimmune disease, autoimmune disorder which affects the skin and the muscles. Its symptoms are generally a skin rash and worsening muscle weakness over ...

esophageal rupture Esophageal rupture, also known as Boerhaave syndrome, is a rupture of the esophageal wall. Iatrogenic causes account for approximately 56% of esophageal perforations, usually due to medical instrumentation such as an endoscopy or paraesophageal s ...

, and seizures, in some cases leading to death, although such incidents are limited in number and some evidence suggests precipitation by medical contraindications. Kambo, which originated as a

folk medicine Traditional medicine (also known as indigenous medicine or folk medicine) refers to the knowledge, skills, and practices rooted in the cultural beliefs of various societies, especially Indigenous groups, used for maintaining health and treatin ...

practice among some

indigenous peoples There is no generally accepted definition of Indigenous peoples, although in the 21st century the focus has been on self-identification, cultural difference from other groups in a state, a special relationship with their traditional territ ...

in the

Amazon basin The Amazon basin is the part of South America drained by the Amazon River and its tributary, tributaries. The Amazon drainage basin covers an area of about , or about 35.5 percent of the South American continent. It is located in the countries ...

, is also administered as a

complementary medicine Alternative medicine refers to practices that aim to achieve the healing effects of conventional medicine, but that typically lack biological plausibility, testability, repeatability, or supporting evidence of effectiveness. Such practices ar ...

and

alternative medicine Alternative medicine refers to practices that aim to achieve the healing effects of conventional medicine, but that typically lack biological plausibility, testability, repeatability, or supporting evidence of effectiveness. Such practices are ...

treatment in the West, often as a

pseudoscientific Pseudoscience consists of statements, beliefs, or practices that claim to be both scientific and factual but are incompatible with the scientific method. Pseudoscience is often characterized by contradictory, exaggerated or unfalsifiable cl ...

cleanse or

detox Detoxification or detoxication (detox for short) is the physiological or medicinal removal of toxic substances from a living organism, including the human body, which is mainly carried out by the liver. Additionally, it can refer to the period o ...

. The ceremony involves burning an arm or leg and applying the kambo secretion directly to the burn. Promoters claim that kambo helps with several illnesses or injuries. There is no

scientific evidence Scientific evidence is evidence that serves to either support or counter a scientific theory or hypothesis, although scientists also use evidence in other ways, such as when applying theories to practical problems. "Discussions about empirical ev ...

that it is an effective treatment and causal evidence is limited. It seems to be particularly dangerous to take kambo with large quantities of water. Doing that is associated with

and severe electrolyte imbalances: changes in plasma and urine osmolarity,

hypokalemia Hypokalemia is a low level of potassium (K+) in the blood serum. Mild low potassium does not typically cause symptoms. Symptoms may include feeling tired, leg cramps, weakness, and constipation. Low potassium also increases the risk of an a ...

hypomagnesemia Magnesium deficiency is an electrolyte disturbance in which there is a low level of magnesium in the body. Symptoms include tremor, poor coordination, muscle spasms, loss of appetite, personality changes, and nystagmus. Complications may in ...

and

hypophosphatemia Hypophosphatemia is an electrolyte disorder in which there is a low level of phosphate in the blood. Symptoms may include weakness, trouble breathing, and loss of appetite. Complications may include seizures, coma, rhabdomyolysis, or soft ...

Naloxone Naloxone, sold under the brand name Narcan among others, is an opioid antagonist, a medication used to reverse or reduce the effects of opioids. For example, it is used to restore breathing after an opioid overdose. Effects begin within two ...

is under study as a possible antidote; hospital treatment also includes medicines to protect organs from damage and restore electrolyte function.

Terminology

* Kampo pae, a name used by the Noke Kuin (formerly Katukina) * Dow kiet, a word used by the Matses * Sapo, kampô, kampu, vacina de sapo, or vacina da floresta, in

Brazilian Portuguese Brazilian Portuguese (; ; also known as pt-BR) is the set of Variety (linguistics), varieties of Portuguese language native to Brazil. It is spoken by almost all of the 203 million inhabitants of Brazil and widely across the Brazilian diaspora ...

"Kambô" is a common name of ''

Phyllomedusa bicolor ''Phyllomedusa bicolor'', the giant leaf frog, bicolor tree-frog, giant monkey frog, or waxy-monkey treefrog, is a species of leaf frog. It can be found in the Amazon basin of Brazil, Colombia ( Amazonas), Bolivia, and Peru, and can also be fou ...

'', an Amazonian tree frog, also known as the blue-and-yellow frog, bicolored tree-frog, giant monkey frog, giant leaf frog, or waxy-monkey tree frog. "Sapo" means "toad" in Spanish and Portuguese. The frog is an anuran amphibian that inhabits the Amazon and

Orinoco The Orinoco () is one of the longest rivers in South America at . Its drainage basin, sometimes known as the Orinoquia, covers approximately 1 million km2, with 65% of it in Venezuela and 35% in Colombia. It is the List of rivers by discharge, f ...

basins in

South America South America is a continent entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a considerably smaller portion in the Northern Hemisphere. It can also be described as the southern Subregion#Americas, subregion o ...

History

Natives who practice kambo are

Panoan Panoan (also Pánoan, Panoano, Panoana, Páno) is a family of languages spoken in western Brazil, eastern Peru, and northern Bolivia. It is possibly a branch of a larger Pano–Tacanan family. Genetic relations The Panoan family is generally be ...

-speaking indigenous groups in the southeast

Amazon rainforest The Amazon rainforest, also called the Amazon jungle or Amazonia, is a Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests, moist broadleaf tropical rainforest in the Amazon biome that covers most of the Amazon basin of South America. This basin ...

, such as the

Matsés The Matsés or Mayoruna are an indigenous people of the Peruvian and Brazilian Amazon. Their traditional homelands are located between the Javari and Galvez rivers. The Matsés have long guarded their lands from other indigenous tribes and stru ...

, Marubo, Amahuaca, Kashinawa, Katukina, Yawanawá, and

Kaxinawá The Huni Kuin (also known as: ''Kaxinawá'', ''Cashinahua'', ''Kaschinawa'', ''Kashinawa'', ''Caxinauás'') are an Indigenous people of Brazil and Indigenous peoples in Peru, Peru. Their villages are located along the Purus River, Purus and Cur ...

. There are

ethnographic Ethnography is a branch of anthropology and the systematic study of individual cultures. It explores cultural phenomena from the point of view of the subject of the study. Ethnography is also a type of social research that involves examining ...

studies on the use of kambo in traditional Noke Kuin medicine in the region of the state of

Acre The acre ( ) is a Unit of measurement, unit of land area used in the Imperial units, British imperial and the United States customary units#Area, United States customary systems. It is traditionally defined as the area of one Chain (unit), ch ...

, in the

Brazilian Amazon Brazilian commonly refers to: * Brazil, a country * Brazilians, its people * Brazilian Portuguese, its dialect Brazilian may also refer to: * "The Brazilian", a 1986 instrumental music piece by Genesis * Brazilian Café, Baghdad, Iraq (1937) * Bra ...

. Since the mid-20th century, kambo has also been practiced in urban regions of

Brazil Brazil, officially the Federative Republic of Brazil, is the largest country in South America. It is the world's List of countries and dependencies by area, fifth-largest country by area and the List of countries and dependencies by population ...

. In 2004, Brazil banned the sale and marketing of kambo. Import is illegal in

Chile Chile, officially the Republic of Chile, is a country in western South America. It is the southernmost country in the world and the closest to Antarctica, stretching along a narrow strip of land between the Andes, Andes Mountains and the Paci ...

. Outside of South America, it first became known as an

alternative therapy Alternative medicine refers to practices that aim to achieve the healing effects of conventional medicine, but that typically lack biological plausibility, testability, repeatability, or supporting evidence of effectiveness. Such practices ar ...

in the late 2010s. In 2021, the

Therapeutic Goods Administration The Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA) is the medicine and therapeutic regulatory agency of the Australian Government. As part of the Department of Health, Disability and Ageing, the TGA regulates the safety, quality, efficacy and advertisi ...

(TGA) of Australia banned the use of kambo in Australia and classified it as a schedule-10

poison A poison is any chemical substance that is harmful or lethal to living organisms. The term is used in a wide range of scientific fields and industries, where it is often specifically defined. It may also be applied colloquially or figurati ...

. It is listed in the category for "substances of such danger to health as to warrant prohibition of sale, supply and use".

Indigenous use

Kambo_ritual_-_inoculating_skin_with_poisonous_secretions_of_Phyllomedusa_bicolor_tree_frog

To collect the secretions from the frog's body, first, the frog has to be caught. A practitioner will tie the frog to four sticks placed in the ground with its limbs stretched. This causes the frog to become stressed enough to activate its defense mechanism and secrete a substance containing peptides from its skin. After these secretions are obtained, the frog is released back into the wild. The secretions are then left to dry. Small burns are created on the skin, and a small dose of the frog secretions is applied to the open wounds. In native practice, the secretions are removed from the wounds after 15 to 20 minutes, ending the acute symptoms. Traditional practitioners claim that it aids

fertility Fertility in colloquial terms refers the ability to have offspring. In demographic contexts, fertility refers to the actual production of offspring, rather than the physical capability to reproduce, which is termed fecundity. The fertility rate ...

, cleanses the body and soul, increases strength, and brings good luck to hunts, though there is no scientific evidence for these claims. It is used by natives to who attempt to expel "panema" (bad spirit) and to induce abortions. The secretions are also commonly used in people who suffer from laziness, a condition perceived as unfavorable by the Noke Kuin as the person stops participating socially. Joaquim Luz, a Yamanawa leader, criticized internet sales and kambo's use without the preparation or permission of indigenous peoples, saying that such users are at risk, even of death. Other native groups have also expressed concerns.

Non-indigenous use

Outside South America, a kambo ceremony can involve just two people: the practitioner and the participant, or many participants at once, which is known as a kambo circle. Participants are encouraged to bring plenty of water, a towel, and a bucket. There are usually

yoga mat Yoga mats are specially fabricated mats used to prevent hands and feet slipping during asana practice in modern yoga as exercise. An early variety made of rubber carpet underlay, pioneered by the yoga teacher Angela Farmer in 1982, was called a ...

s on the floor and the ceremony room, which is often the practitioner's living room, is heavily

incense Incense is an aromatic biotic material that releases fragrant smoke when burnt. The term is used for either the material or the aroma. Incense is used for aesthetic reasons, religious worship, aromatherapy, meditation, and ceremonial reasons. It ...

d. During the ceremony, the participant's skin is deliberately burnt multiple times, usually on the upper arm or leg, by the practitioner using a smoldering stick or vine. The practitioner uses saliva or water to reconstitute the secretions and place it on top of the burnt skin. Participants may be encouraged to shout ''"Viva"'' whenever one of them vomits into their bucket. Short-term effects include violent nausea, vomiting, diarrhea,

edema Edema (American English), also spelled oedema (British English), and also known as fluid retention, swelling, dropsy and hydropsy, is the build-up of fluid in the body's tissue (biology), tissue. Most commonly, the legs or arms are affected. S ...

(swelling) of the face, headaches, and

. The secretions seem to be

vasoactive A vasoactive substance is an endogenous agent or pharmaceutical drug that has the effect of either increasing or decreasing blood pressure and/or heart rate through its vasoactivity, that is, vascular activity (effect on blood vessels). By adjust ...

(affecting the circulation), explaining why they are absorbed rapidly. Intoxication may occur immediately or within hours.

Medical claims

Non-indigenous users and practitioners of kambo claim that the alternative medicine helps with a wide variety of issues and conditions. These claims include treating

addiction Addiction is a neuropsychological disorder characterized by a persistent and intense urge to use a drug or engage in a behavior that produces natural reward, despite substantial harm and other negative consequences. Repetitive drug use can ...

, depression, and

chronic pain Chronic pain is pain that persists or recurs for longer than 3 months.https://icd.who.int/browse/2025-01/mms/en#1581976053 It is also known as gradual burning pain, electrical pain, throbbing pain, and nauseating pain. This type of pain is in cont ...

, reducing

fever Fever or pyrexia in humans is a symptom of an anti-infection defense mechanism that appears with Human body temperature, body temperature exceeding the normal range caused by an increase in the body's temperature Human body temperature#Fever, s ...

s, increasing fertility, boosting energy and physical strength, and improving mental clarity. It is also claimed that kambo removes

negative energy Negative energy is a concept used in physics to explain the nature of certain fields, including the gravitational field and various quantum field effects. Gravitational energy Gravitational energy, or gravitational potential energy, is the po ...

. There is currently no

to support positive health effect claims.. There is no solid medical evidence on how the frog toxins work, whether they are useful for treating anything, and whether they can be used safely: no

clinical trial Clinical trials are prospective biomedical or behavioral research studies on human subject research, human participants designed to answer specific questions about biomedical or behavioral interventions, including new treatments (such as novel v ...

s have tested them on humans, . Reports of adverse effects are numerous, including for use with experienced guidance. Kym Jenkins of the

Royal Australian and New Zealand College of Psychiatrists The Royal Australian and New Zealand College of Psychiatrists (RANZCP) is the principal organisation representing the medical specialty of psychiatry in Australia and New Zealand and has responsibility for training, examining and awarding the qua ...

, in a ''

Sydney Morning Herald ''The Sydney Morning Herald'' (''SMH'') is a daily tabloid newspaper published in Sydney, Australia, and owned by Nine Entertainment. Founded in 1831 as the ''Sydney Herald'', the ''Herald'' is the oldest continuously published newspaper in ...

'' article, said "people with mental illness are a more vulnerable group anyway for a variety of reasons. If you're feeling very anxious or very depressed, you're automatically more vulnerable, and you could be more susceptible to people advertising or marketing a quick fix. I do have concerns that people can be preyed upon when they are more vulnerable." The

Australian Medical Association The Australian Medical Association (AMA) is an independent professional association for Australian physician, doctors and medical school#Medical students, medical students. The association is not a government authority and does not regulate or ...

(AMA) supports the TGA's ban on the sale, supply, and use of kambo, saying it considers kambo to be a "significant health risk".

Marketing

In non-indigenous use, the frog secretion is described and marketed as a "

" treatment, cleanse, purge, and as a "vaccine" that is "good for everything". Kambo has been marketed both as a "scientific" remedy, emphasizing the biochemistry, and as a "spiritual" remedy, emphasizing its Indigenous origins. Purging (deliberate vomiting) has been a popular treatment since the 1800s. "Detox" has been described by

Edzard Ernst Edzard Ernst (born 30 January 1948) is a retired British-German academic physician and researcher specializing in the study of complementary and alternative medicine. He was Professor of Complementary Medicine at the University of Exeter, the wo ...

, emeritus professor of complementary medicine, as a term for conventional medical treatments for addiction, which has been "hijacked by entrepreneurs, quacks, and charlatans to sell a bogus treatment." In Brazil, given the growth in the consumption of kambo in urban centers, there has been criticism by indigenous people, academics and communicators regarding the

cultural appropriation Cultural appropriation is the adoption of an element or elements of one culture or cultural identity, identity by members of another culture or identity in a manner perceived as inappropriate or unacknowledged. Such a controversy typically ari ...

of indigenous knowledge, the process of extracting the secretion of the ''Phyllomedusa bicolor'' frog, the form of transmission of wisdom, and the price charged by the ritual and the mystification of the origin of the frog. There is also concern about

pharmacological Pharmacology is the science of drugs and medications, including a substance's origin, composition, pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, therapeutic use, and toxicology. More specifically, it is the study of the interactions that occur between ...

patent A patent is a type of intellectual property that gives its owner the legal right to exclude others from making, using, or selling an invention for a limited period of time in exchange for publishing an sufficiency of disclosure, enabling discl ...

s on the peptides identified in kambo (see

biopiracy Biopiracy (also known as scientific colonialism ) is the unauthorized appropriation of knowledge and genetic resources of farming and indigenous communities by individuals or institutions seeking exclusive monopoly control through patents or in ...

), the commercialization of the kambo outside its place of origin, and the unknown impact on frog populations, since many more are now removed from their natural

habitat In ecology, habitat refers to the array of resources, biotic factors that are present in an area, such as to support the survival and reproduction of a particular species. A species' habitat can be seen as the physical manifestation of its ...

s. In light of the chemical complexity of the frog toxins, and their complex and potentially fatal effects, the authors of a 2022 review on the diagnosis and treatment of kambo cases said they urged "strict surveillance of the websites that encourage the use of this substance and eurge greater control of e-commerce or illicit trafficking of animals and secretions, including through the dark web".

Environmental impact

The effect of the increased use of kambo rituals, and trafficking of the frogs and their secretions, may have an effect on the population of ''

'' in its natural habitats: the forests of

Bolivia Bolivia, officially the Plurinational State of Bolivia, is a landlocked country located in central South America. The country features diverse geography, including vast Amazonian plains, tropical lowlands, mountains, the Gran Chaco Province, w ...

Peru Peru, officially the Republic of Peru, is a country in western South America. It is bordered in the north by Ecuador and Colombia, in the east by Brazil, in the southeast by Bolivia, in the south by Chile, and in the south and west by the Pac ...

the Guianas The Guianas, also spelled Guyanas or Guayanas, are a geographical region in north-eastern South America. Strictly, the term refers to the three Guianas: Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana, formerly British, Dutch, and French Guiana respectiv ...

Colombia Colombia, officially the Republic of Colombia, is a country primarily located in South America with Insular region of Colombia, insular regions in North America. The Colombian mainland is bordered by the Caribbean Sea to the north, Venezuel ...

, and

Venezuela Venezuela, officially the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, is a country on the northern coast of South America, consisting of a continental landmass and many Federal Dependencies of Venezuela, islands and islets in the Caribbean Sea. It com ...

. ''Phyllomedusa bicolor'' is not considered an

endangered species An endangered species is a species that is very likely to become extinct in the near future, either worldwide or in a particular political jurisdiction. Endangered species may be at risk due to factors such as habitat loss, poaching, inv ...

by the

IUCN The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) is an international organization working in the field of nature conservation and sustainable use of natural resources. Founded in 1948, IUCN has become the global authority on the status ...

. Besides ''Phyllomedusa'' (species?), other threatened endemic frog species of South America's

neotropical The Neotropical realm is one of the eight biogeographic realms constituting Earth's land surface. Physically, it includes the tropical terrestrial ecoregions of the Americas and the entire South American temperate zone. Definition In biogeogra ...

regions have been poached and smuggled on the

black market A black market is a Secrecy, clandestine Market (economics), market or series of transactions that has some aspect of illegality, or is not compliant with an institutional set of rules. If the rule defines the set of goods and services who ...

. File:Waxy Monkey Tree Frog Phyllomedusa sauvagii.jpg, ''Phyllomedusa bicolor'' File:Rã arborícola face.jpg, Tree frog, Caetité, Bahia, Brazil File:Phyllomedusa hypochondrialis.jpg, ''Phyllomedusa hypochondrialis'' File:Phyllomedusa burmeisteri01b.jpg, ''Phyllomedusa burmeisteri'' File:Phyllomedusa iheringii01.jpg, ''Phyllomedusa theringii'' File:Phyllomedusa trinitatis.jpg, ''Phyllomedusa trinitatis'' File:Phyllomedusa distincta01.jpg, ''Phyllomedusa distincta'' File:Phyllomedusa boliviana - Bolivianischer Makifrosch.jpg, Bolivian Phyllomedusa File:Phyllomedusa azurea.jpg, ''Phyllomedusa azurea''

Parasitology

Smuggling amphibians such as ''Phyllomedusa bicolor'' can spread parasites.

Zoo A zoo (short for zoological garden; also called an animal park or menagerie) is a facility where animals are kept within enclosures for public exhibition and often bred for conservation purposes. The term ''zoological garden'' refers to zoology, ...

s keep frogs for conservation purposes, and there are many parasites present in these animals that naturally occur only in the native habitats. It is recommended for imported

amphibians Amphibians are ectothermic, anamniote, anamniotic, tetrapod, four-limbed vertebrate animals that constitute the class (biology), class Amphibia. In its broadest sense, it is a paraphyletic group encompassing all Tetrapod, tetrapods, but excl ...

to go through a

quarantine A quarantine is a restriction on the movement of people, animals, and goods which is intended to prevent the spread of disease or pests. It is often used in connection to disease and illness, preventing the movement of those who may have bee ...

process to verify they are not spreading parasites that could damage other

ecosystem An ecosystem (or ecological system) is a system formed by Organism, organisms in interaction with their Biophysical environment, environment. The Biotic material, biotic and abiotic components are linked together through nutrient cycles and en ...

Parasite Parasitism is a Symbiosis, close relationship between species, where one organism, the parasite, lives (at least some of the time) on or inside another organism, the Host (biology), host, causing it some harm, and is Adaptation, adapted str ...

infection rates in frogs is 51%, while in

salamander Salamanders are a group of amphibians typically characterized by their lizard-like appearance, with slender bodies, blunt snouts, short limbs projecting at right angles to the body, and the presence of a tail in both larvae and adults. All t ...

s it is 13%. Individuals who want to have them as pets are obligated and encouraged to get them examined to detect

gastrointestinal The gastrointestinal tract (GI tract, digestive tract, alimentary canal) is the tract or passageway of the digestive system that leads from the mouth to the anus. The tract is the largest of the body's systems, after the cardiovascular system. ...

parasites that could potentially be harmful. ''Neocosmocercella fisherae'' is the first

nematode The nematodes ( or ; ; ), roundworms or eelworms constitute the phylum Nematoda. Species in the phylum inhabit a broad range of environments. Most species are free-living, feeding on microorganisms, but many are parasitic. Parasitic worms (h ...

species found parasitising ''Phyllomedusa bicolor'' from the Brazilian Amazon region.

Notable deaths

A 40-year-old businessman was charged in Brazil in 2008 with the illegal exercise of medicine and

felony murder The rule of felony murder is a legal doctrine in some common law jurisdictions that broadens the crime of murder: when someone is killed (regardless of intent to kill) in the commission of a dangerous or enumerated crime (called a felony in so ...

after administering kambo toxins to a business colleague who died; the deceased's son, who said his father had pressured him into participating, suffered more minor effects. In Chile, in 2009, Daniel Lara Aguilar, who suffered from chronic

lumbar disc disease In tetrapod anatomy, lumbar is an adjective that means of or pertaining to the abdominal segment of the torso, between the diaphragm and the sacrum. Naming and location The lumbar region is sometimes referred to as the lower spine, or as an ar ...

, died immediately after taking kambo administered by a local shaman in a mass healing ceremony; the autopsy was inconclusive due to pre-existing conditions. Medical literature reported a 2018 case in Italy of a man with obesity and

ventricular hypertrophy Ventricular hypertrophy (VH) is thickening of the walls of a ventricle (lower chamber) of the heart. Although left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH) is more common, right ventricular hypertrophy (RVH), as well as concurrent hypertrophy of both vent ...

, who, according to autopsy reports, died of

cardiac arrhythmia Arrhythmias, also known as cardiac arrhythmias, are irregularities in the heartbeat, including when it is too fast or too slow. Essentially, this is anything but normal sinus rhythm. A resting heart rate that is too fast – above 100 beat ...

while under the effects of kambo use. In March 2019, kambo practitioner Natasha Lechner suffered a cardiac arrest and died while receiving kambo. In April 2019, a homicide investigation was opened into the death by "severe

cerebral edema Cerebral edema is excess accumulation of fluid ( edema) in the intracellular or extracellular spaces of the brain. This typically causes impaired nerve function, increased pressure within the skull, and can eventually lead to direct compres ...

" of a young person who had taken kambo toxins in Chile; the import of the frog and its secretions is illegal in Chile. In October 2021, Australian man Jarred Antonovich died at a festival in New South Wales from a perforated

esophagus The esophagus (American English), oesophagus (British English), or œsophagus (Œ, archaic spelling) (American and British English spelling differences#ae and oe, see spelling difference) all ; : ((o)e)(œ)sophagi or ((o)e)(œ)sophaguses), c ...

suspected to be caused by excessive vomiting after being administered kambo and ''N'',''N''-dimethyltriptamine. After a car accident in 1997 from which he had to learn to walk and talk again, he was left with lasting impediments, the inquest heard, which may have contributed to the esophageal rupture.

Pharmacology

The frog secretes a range of small chemical compounds of a type called

peptide Peptides are short chains of amino acids linked by peptide bonds. A polypeptide is a longer, continuous, unbranched peptide chain. Polypeptides that have a molecular mass of 10,000 Da or more are called proteins. Chains of fewer than twenty am ...

s, which have several different effects. Peptides found in the frog secretions include the opioid peptides

dermorphin Dermorphin is a hepta-peptide first isolated from the skin of South American frogs belonging to the genus ''Phyllomedusa''. The peptide is a natural opioid that binds as an agonist with high potency and selectivity to mu opioid receptors. Dermo ...

and

deltorphin Deltorphin, also known as deltorphin A and dermenkephalin, is a naturally occurring, exogenous opioid heptapeptide and thus, exorphin, with the amino acid sequence Tyr-D-Met-Phe-His-Leu-Met-Asp-NH2. Along with the other deltorphins (such as ...

, the

vasodilator Vasodilation, also known as vasorelaxation, is the widening of blood vessels. It results from relaxation of smooth muscle cells within the vessel walls, in particular in the large veins, large arteries, and smaller arterioles. Blood vessel wal ...

sauvagine Sauvagine is a neuropeptide from the corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) family of peptides and is orthologous to the mammalian hormone, urocortin 1, and the teleost fish hormone, urotensin 1. It is 40 amino acids in length, and has the sequence ...

, and

dermaseptin Dermaseptins are a family of peptides isolated from skin of the frog genus ''Phyllomedusa''. The sequence of the dermaseptins varies greatly but due to the presence of lysine residues all are cationic and most have the potential to form amphipathi ...

, which exhibits

antimicrobial An antimicrobial is an agent that kills microorganisms (microbicide) or stops their growth (bacteriostatic agent). Antimicrobial medicines can be grouped according to the microorganisms they are used to treat. For example, antibiotics are used aga ...

properties ''

in vitro ''In vitro'' (meaning ''in glass'', or ''in the glass'') Research, studies are performed with Cell (biology), cells or biological molecules outside their normal biological context. Colloquially called "test-tube experiments", these studies in ...

''. Various other substances such as phyllomedusin, phyllokinin, caerulein, and adrenoregulin are also present. There is active medical research into the peptides found in the skin secretions of ''Phyllomedusa bicolor'', focusing on discovering their biological effects. There have been some preclinical trials in mice and rats, but no phase-1 tests or

clinical trials Clinical trials are prospective biomedical or behavioral research studies on human subject research, human participants designed to answer specific questions about biomedical or behavioral interventions, including new treatments (such as novel v ...

of safety in humans, . Most of the kambo-related bioactive peptides so far characterized have displayed potential applications in medicine, such as phyllocaeruleins with hypotensive properties, tachykinins and phyllokinins as vasodilators, dermorphins and deltorphins with opiate-like properties, and adenoregulins with antibiotic properties. In a clinical trial of a randomized, placebo-controlled study in postoperative pain, dermorphin administered via the intrathecal route was "impressively superior" over the placebo and the reference compound morphine." Due to the numerous biological activities of these substances and the similarities with the amino acid sequences related to mammalian neuropeptides and hormones, many have aroused the interest from a medical and pharmacological perspective, such as in the production of new drugs.

Notes

References

{{reflist, refs= {{cite web , last1=Scherer , first1=Jennifer , title=Australians Are Using This Amazonian Frog Poison Aa A Controversial Alternative Medicine , url=https://www.sbs.com.au/news/the-feed/australians-are-using-this-amazonian-frog-poison-as-a-controversial-alternative-medicine , website=SBS , access-date=15 December 2019 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191107012338/https://www.sbs.com.au/news/the-feed/australians-are-using-this-amazonian-frog-poison-as-a-controversial-alternative-medicine , archive-date=7 November 2019 , date=7 November 2019 {{cite web , last1=Van Zeller , first1=Mariana , last2=Brown , first2=Jasmine , last3=Effron , first3=Lauren , date=29 March 2017 , title=This Amazonian tree frog's poison has become part of the latest supercleanse trend , url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/amazonian-tree-frogs-poison-part-latest-super-cleanse/story?id=46431345 , website=ABC News , access-date=15 December 2019 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170329211353/https://abcnews.go.com/International/amazonian-tree-frogs-poison-part-latest-super-cleanse/story?id=46431345 , archive-date=29 March 2017 , url-status=live {{cite web , last1=Lavoipierre , first1=Angela , title=Tree frog poison being used as an alternative medicine , url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-09-07/kambo-tree-frog-poison-used-as-alternative-medicine/10060126 , website=ABC News , access-date=15 December 2019 , url-status=live , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180907171022/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-09-07/kambo-tree-frog-poison-used-as-alternative-medicine/10060126 , archive-date=7 September 2018 , date=7 September 2018 {{cite web , last1=Schwarcz , first1=Joe , authorlink=Joseph A. 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A. , last2=Zibetti , first2=A. , last3=Bonetta , first3=C. F. , last4=Scalise , first4=C. , last5=Abenavoli , first5=L. , last6=Guarna , first6=F. , last7=Gratteri , first7=S. , last8=Ricci , first8=P. , last9=Aquila , first9=I. , title=Kambo: Natural drug or potential toxic agent? A literature review of acute poisoning cases , journal=Toxicology Reports , date=1 January 2022 , volume=9 , pages=905–913 , doi=10.1016/j.toxrep.2022.04.005 , pmid=35515815 , pmc=9061256 , bibcode=2022ToxR....9..905S , quote=The analysis of titles, abstracts and full texts led to the final selection of 11 cases of acute intoxication. {{cite news , last1=Williams , first1=Alex , title=Can You Poison Your Way to Good Health? , url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/01/01/style/self-care/kambo-tree-frog-detox.html , work=The New York Times , date=1 January 2021 Causes of death Pseudoscience Alternative detoxification Fringe science Scientific skepticism Alternative medicine South American traditional medicine Amphibians and humans

Terminology

History

Indigenous use

Non-indigenous use

Medical claims

Marketing

Environmental impact

Parasitology

Notable deaths

Pharmacology

See also

Notes

References