The Kalapuya are a
Native American people
The term "the people" refers to the public or Common people, common mass of people of a polity. As such it is a concept of human rights law, international law as well as constitutional law, particularly used for claims of popular sovereignty. I ...
, which had eight independent groups speaking three mutually intelligible dialects. The Kalapuya tribes' traditional homelands were the
Willamette Valley
The Willamette Valley ( ) is a valley in Oregon, in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. The Willamette River flows the entire length of the valley and is surrounded by mountains on three sides: the Cascade Range to the east, the ...
of present-day western
Oregon
Oregon ( , ) is a U.S. state, state in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. It is a part of the Western U.S., with the Columbia River delineating much of Oregon's northern boundary with Washington (state), Washington, while t ...
in the
United States
The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...
, an area bounded by the
Cascade Range
The Cascade Range or Cascades is a major mountain range of western North America, extending from southern British Columbia through Washington (state), Washington and Oregon to Northern California. It includes both non-volcanic mountains, such as m ...
to the east, the
Oregon Coast Range
The Oregon Coast Range, often called simply the Coast Range and sometimes the Pacific Coast Range, is a mountain range, in the Pacific Coast Ranges Physiographic regions of the world, physiographic region, in the United States, U.S. state of Or ...
at the west, the
Columbia River
The Columbia River (Upper Chinook language, Upper Chinook: ' or '; Sahaptin language, Sahaptin: ''Nch’i-Wàna'' or ''Nchi wana''; Sinixt dialect'' '') is the largest river in the Pacific Northwest region of North America. The river headwater ...
at the north, to the
Calapooya Mountains of the
Umpqua River
The Umpqua River ( ) on the Pacific coast of Oregon in the United States is approximately long. One of the principal rivers of the Oregon Coast and known for bass and shad, the river drains an expansive network of valleys in the mountains west ...
at the south.
Today, most Kalapuya people are enrolled in the federally recognized
Confederated Tribes of the Grand Ronde Community of Oregon
The Confederated Tribes of the Grand Ronde Community of Oregon (CTGR) is a federally recognized tribe of Indigenous peoples of the Northwest Plateau. They consist of at least 27 Native American tribes with long historical ties to present-day wes ...
; in addition, some are members of the
Confederated Tribes of the Siletz. In both cases descendants have often intermarried with people of other tribes in the confederated tribes, and are counted in overall tribal numbers, rather than separately. Most of the Kalapuya descendants live at the
Grand Ronde reservation, located in Yamhill and Polk counties.
Name
The tribal name has been rendered into English under various spellings as "Calapooia," "Calapuya," "Calapooya," "Kalapooia," and "Kalapooya."
Language
The Kalapuyan people spoke dialects of the
Kalapuyan language. It was categorized by
John Wesley Powell
John Wesley Powell (March 24, 1834 – September 23, 1902) was an American geologist, U.S. Army soldier, explorer of the American West, professor at Illinois Wesleyan University, and director of major scientific and cultural institutions. He ...
as part of the
Takelman language group. In the early 21st century, these are known as the
Oregon Penutian languages.
The Kalapuyan people were not a single homogeneous tribal entity but rather were made up of eight autonomous subdivisions, loosely related to one another by three language dialects, which were mutually intelligible.
[Judy Rycraft Juntunen, May D. Dasch, and Ann Bennett Rogers, ''The World of the Kalapuya: A Native People of Western Oregon.'' Philomath, OR: Benton County Historical Society and Museum, 2005; pg. 13.] The eight related groups comprising the Kalapuya people spoke three distinct dialects of the Oregon Penutian language family:
Northern Kalapuyan,
Central Kalapuyan, and
Yoncalla (also called Southern Kalapuya).
[Barbara A. Leitch, ''A Concise Dictionary of Indian Tribes of North America.'' Algonac, MI: Reference Publications, Inc., 1979; pp. 204–205.]
Catholic missionary
François Blanchet said that "fourteen or fifteen different dialects were spoken by these tribes; they are not so essentially different but that they can understand each other. Moreover, the
Chinook jargon
Chinook Jargon (' or ', also known simply as ''Chinook'' or ''Jargon'') is a language originating as a pidgin language, pidgin trade language in the Pacific Northwest. It spread during the 19th century from the lower Columbia River, first to othe ...
is spoken among the Kalapooias
ic"
[ Blanchet, François N.br>''Historical Sketches of the Catholic Church in Oregon'']
Portland: 1878. pp. 59-60. Chinook jargon was a trade language that developed among the Native Americans for their own use and for trading with Europeans. It became popular on the Grand Ronde Reservation. The Confederated Tribes of the Grand Ronde Community have renamed it as ''Chinuk Wawa,'' and developed a language immersion program for children to create new generations of native speakers.
Social structure
Kalapuya bands typically consisted of extended families of related men, their wives, and children.
[Juntunen, Dasch, and Rogers, ''The World of the Kalapuya,'' pg. 17.] They had a
patrilineal
Patrilineality, also known as the male line, the spear side or agnatic kinship, is a common kinship system in which an individual's family membership derives from and is recorded through their father's lineage. It generally involves the inheritanc ...
kinship system. These bands would occupy a year-round village: during the winter they lived there full-time. During the spring and summer, some members split off into smaller groups and traveled to other areas to gather seasonal food and raw materials for basketry.
Bands frequently had a single leader or chief— generally the wealthiest man — who would resolve arguments, settle collective debts of the community such as those incurred through
gambling
Gambling (also known as betting or gaming) is the wagering of something of Value (economics), value ("the stakes") on a Event (probability theory), random event with the intent of winning something else of value, where instances of strategy (ga ...
, and would provide food for feasts.
As was the case for many tribes of the Pacific Northwest, the Kalapuya practiced slavery. They generally obtained Indian slaves through trade or as gifts. The slaves were usually captured by enemy peoples during raids.
[Juntunen, Dasch, and Rogers, ''The World of the Kalapuya,'' pg. 18.] Northern Kalapuya groups, such as the
Tualatin and
Yamhill, obtained slaves through conquest, raiding bands located on the coast or further south in the Willamette Valley.
Slaves were considered a form of wealth; they were traded to obtain desired commodities, including beads, blankets, and
canoe
A canoe is a lightweight, narrow watercraft, water vessel, typically pointed at both ends and open on top, propelled by one or more seated or kneeling paddlers facing the direction of travel and using paddles.
In British English, the term ' ...
s.
Women and children were preferred as slaves, owing to their comparative ease of control.
Slaves lived with the families who owned them, working side-by-side in gender-specific daily tasks and performing chores such as the collection of firewood and water.
[Juntunen, Dasch, and Rogers, ''The World of the Kalapuya,'' pg. 19.] Slaves were often free to marry. They could purchase freedom through their own accumulation of property or through sufficient payment to the owner by a prospective spouse.
The patriarchal Kalapuyan society had divisions by wealth and personal property. Special religious leaders were also recognized as a distinct class. These people were believed to possess supernatural predictive or healing powers and could have their origin in any group; they might be male or female, free individual or slave.
Kalapuyan society had gender-differentiated labor, as did many Native American tribes. Men engaged in fishing, hunting, and warfare. They also made tools and constructed canoes.
Women worked to gather and prepare the staple plant foods that were the basis of the Kalapuyan diet, set up temporary camps, and constructed baskets and other craft products.
During the summer months the women of the band would process and prepare food products for winter storage, generally staying in the main village to complete the task, while others gathered the foods from afar.
Historic Kalapuyan groups

The Kalapuyan groups (identified by language) were:
Northern Kalapuya:
*Tualatin, also known as the
Atfalati, along the
Tualatin River
*Yamhill, along the
Yamhill River
The Yamhill River is an tributary of the Willamette River, in the U.S. state of Oregon. Formed by the confluence of the South Yamhill River and the North Yamhill River about east of McMinnville, it drains part of the Northern Oregon Coast R ...
Central Kalapuya:
*Ahantchuyuk, along the
Pudding River
*Luckiamute, along the
Luckiamute River
*
Santiam, along the lower
Santiam River near present-day
Lebanon
Lebanon, officially the Republic of Lebanon, is a country in the Levant region of West Asia. Situated at the crossroads of the Mediterranean Basin and the Arabian Peninsula, it is bordered by Syria to the north and east, Israel to the south ...
*Chepenefa, along the
Marys River near present-day
Corvallis
*Chemapho, along
Muddy Creek (Central Kalapuya)
*Tsankupi, along the
Calapooia River
*
Mohawk, along the
Mohawk River
The Mohawk River is a U.S. Geological Survey. National Hydrography Dataset high-resolution flowline dataThe National Map accessed October 3, 2011 river in the U.S. state of New York (state), New York. It is the largest tributary of the Hudson R ...
(Note: These have no relation to the
Iroquoian
The Iroquoian languages () are a language family of indigenous peoples of North America. They are known for their general lack of labial consonants. The Iroquoian languages are polysynthetic and head-marking.
As of 2020, almost all surviving I ...
-speaking
Mohawk Nation
The Mohawk, also known by their own name, (), are an Indigenous peoples of the Americas, Indigenous people of North America and the easternmost nation of the Haudenosaunee, or Iroquois Confederacy (also known as the Five Nations or later the ...
of New York and Canada)
*Chafan
*Chelamela, along the
Long Tom River
*Winefelly, along the Mohawk,
McKenzie, and
Coast Fork Willamette rivers.
Yoncalla:
*Yoncalla, along the
Umpqua River
The Umpqua River ( ) on the Pacific coast of Oregon in the United States is approximately long. One of the principal rivers of the Oregon Coast and known for bass and shad, the river drains an expansive network of valleys in the mountains west ...
.
In his description of the Indians of the Willamette Valley in 1849, Governor
Joseph Lane
Joseph Lane (December 14, 1801 – April 19, 1881) was an American politician and soldier. He was a state legislator representing Evansville, Indiana, and then served in the Mexican–American War, becoming a general. President James K. Polk ap ...
gave the following estimates for the tribes' populations:
"Calipoa": 60; "Tualatine": 60; "Yam Hill": 90; "Lucka-mues": 15.
History
The Kalapuya people are believed to have entered their historical homeland in the
Willamette Valley
The Willamette Valley ( ) is a valley in Oregon, in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. The Willamette River flows the entire length of the valley and is surrounded by mountains on three sides: the Cascade Range to the east, the ...
by migrating from the south of the valley northwards and forcing out earlier inhabitants.
[Robert H. Ruby and John A. Brown, ''A Guide to the Indian Tribes of the Pacific Northwest'' (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1992): 10.]
Each of these bands occupied specific areas along the
Willamette,
Umpqua, and
McKenzie rivers.
The various Kalapuyan bands were hunter-gatherers, gaining food by fishing and hunting by the men, and gathering of nuts, berries and other fruits and roots by the women.
The tribe made use of
obsidian
Obsidian ( ) is a naturally occurring volcanic glass formed when lava extrusive rock, extruded from a volcano cools rapidly with minimal crystal growth. It is an igneous rock. Produced from felsic lava, obsidian is rich in the lighter element ...
obtained from the
volcanic ranges to the east to fashion sharp and effective projectile points, including arrowheads and spear tips.
Prior to contact with white explorers, traders, and missionaries, the Kalapuya population is believed to have numbered as many as 15,000 people.
Robert Boyd estimates the total Kalapuyan population between 8,780 and 9,200 for the period between 1805 and the end of the decade of the 1820s.

Catastrophic
epidemics
An epidemic (from Ancient Greek, Greek ἐπί ''epi'' "upon or above" and δῆμος ''demos'' "people") is the rapid spread of disease to a large number of Host (biology), hosts in a given population within a short period of time. For example ...
of infectious diseases such as malaria,
smallpox
Smallpox was an infectious disease caused by Variola virus (often called Smallpox virus), which belongs to the genus '' Orthopoxvirus''. The last naturally occurring case was diagnosed in October 1977, and the World Health Organization (W ...
, and other endemic diseases occurred after Natives contracted diseases from the white explorers, traders, and missionaries who entered the region. These diseases were endemic among the Europeans and Americans, but the Native Americans didn't have immunity to them and died at a high rate as a result. Some accounts tell of villages devoid of inhabitants, standing in grim testament to the high mortality of these epidemics. Blanchet reported in 1839 that diseases "reduced
hem
A hem in sewing is a garment finishing method, where the edge of a piece of cloth is folded and sewn to prevent unravelling of the fabric and to adjust the length of the piece in garments, such as at the end of the sleeve or the bottom of the ga ...
to a very small population threatening to decline more and more."
[
By 1849 Oregon territorial governor ]Joseph Lane
Joseph Lane (December 14, 1801 – April 19, 1881) was an American politician and soldier. He was a state legislator representing Evansville, Indiana, and then served in the Mexican–American War, becoming a general. President James K. Polk ap ...
reckoned the remaining Kalapuyan population at just 60 souls — with those survivors living in the most dire of conditions. Contemporary scholarship estimates the total of the various Kalapuya peoples in this interval at closer to 600.
Treaties with the United States
The United States conducted two major cycles of treatymaking in Oregon that affected the Kalapuya: in 1851 and in 1854 to 1855. The 1851 treaties were negotiated by Oregon's Superintendent of Indian Affairs Anson Dart, and those in 1855 by Dart's successor Joel Palmer. While the 1851 treaties were never ratified by the Senate and thus were not implemented, the 1854–1855 ones were.
On April 12, 1851, at the Santiam Treaty Council in Champoeg, Oregon Territory
The Territory of Oregon was an organized incorporated territory of the United States that existed from August 14, 1848, until February 14, 1859, when the southwestern portion of the territory was admitted to the United States, Union as the Oreg ...
, Santiam Kalapuya tribal leaders voiced strong opinions over where they would live. The Santiam leaders Alquema and Tiacan wanted to maintain their traditional territory between the forks of the Santiam River.
In the 1854 Treaty of Calapooia Creek, Oregon, Umpqua and Kalapuyan tribes of Umpqua Valley ceded their lands to the United States
The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...
.
In the Treaty with the Kalapuya, etc., at Dayton, Oregon (January 22, 1855), the Kalapuya and other tribes of the Willamette valley ceded the entire drainage area of the Willamette River
The Willamette River ( ) is a major tributary of the Columbia River, accounting for 12 to 15 percent of the Columbia's flow. The Willamette's main stem is long, lying entirely in northwestern Oregon in the United States. Flowing northward ...
to the United States.
Reservation era
Most Kalapuya Indians were removed to the Grand Ronde Agency and reservation. Some were assigned to the Siletz Reservation (known then as the Coast Indian Reservation
The Coast Indian Reservation is a former Indian reservation in the U.S. state of Oregon, established in 1855. It was gradually reduced in size and in the 21st century is known as the present-day Siletz Reservation.
History
The Coast Reservation ...
) on the central Pacific Coast of Oregon, Warm Springs Reservation east of the Cascade Mountains in what are now Wasco and Jefferson Counties, or Yakama Reservation in Southern Washington State. Settled in 1855 as a temporary reserve, the Grand Ronde Reservation was first called the Yamhill River Reserve or Yamhill Valley reserve. It was officially renamed and established as the Grand Ronde Reservation by Executive Order
In the United States, an executive order is a directive by the president of the United States that manages operations of the federal government. The legal or constitutional basis for executive orders has multiple sources. Article Two of the ...
in 1857.
With members of at least 27 tribes removed to Grand Ronde, life at the reservation was difficult. Some of these tribes had historically been enemies. In the early years, the reservation was managed by the US Department of War
The United States Department of War, also called the War Department (and occasionally War Office in the early years), was the United States Cabinet department originally responsible for the operation and maintenance of the United States Army, als ...
. As it had earlier waged war against the tribes, it supervised Indian affairs across the country. Fort Yamhill was established to oversee the Indians. Later Indian management was taken over by the Commissioner of Indian Affairs
The Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA), also known as Indian Affairs (IA), is a United States List of United States federal agencies, federal agency within the U.S. Department of the Interior, Department of the Interior. It is responsible for im ...
and finally the Bureau of Indian Affairs
The Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA), also known as Indian Affairs (IA), is a United States List of United States federal agencies, federal agency within the U.S. Department of the Interior, Department of the Interior. It is responsible for im ...
, placed within the Department of Interior.
Rev. Adrien Croquet (Crocket) of Belgium
Belgium, officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a country in Northwestern Europe. Situated in a coastal lowland region known as the Low Countries, it is bordered by the Netherlands to the north, Germany to the east, Luxembourg to the southeas ...
was the Roman Catholic missionary
A missionary is a member of a Religious denomination, religious group who is sent into an area in order to promote its faith or provide services to people, such as education, literacy, social justice, health care, and economic development.Thoma ...
at Grand Ronde and established St. Michael's church. The Roman Catholic Church
The Catholic Church (), also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the List of Christian denominations by number of members, largest Christian church, with 1.27 to 1.41 billion baptized Catholics Catholic Church by country, worldwid ...
also established a school there in the late 19th century with approval by the United States. The school was an on-reservation boarding school
A boarding school is a school where pupils live within premises while being given formal instruction. The word "boarding" is used in the sense of "room and board", i.e. lodging and meals. They have existed for many centuries, and now extend acr ...
to which children from other sites were at times forcibly removed and made to stay at school throughout the school year. Many children were later sent to off-reservation Indian boarding schools, such as Chemawa Indian School in Salem. Most children were taught rural skills such as blacksmithing, farming, sewing, etc. believed to be important to their future lives on the reservation.
Sanitation and health care at the reservation was poor, and mortality was high. In the 1850s a total of 1,000 people had been moved there. By 1900, only about 300 people survived.
Termination and restoration
In the mid-20th century, Federal policy continued to be directed at assimilation of Native Americans. Congress believed that some tribes were ready to enter the mainstream society and end their special relationship with the government. All of the bands and tribes of the Kalapuya descendants were terminated in 1954, along with all other western Oregon tribes, in the Western Oregon Indian Termination Act of 1954. This ended their special relationship with the federal government. Under final termination actions, the government sold most of the reservation lands, removed its services, and published final rolls of the tribe in the ''Congressional Record
The ''Congressional Record'' is the official record of the proceedings and debates of the United States Congress, published by the United States Government Publishing Office and issued when Congress is in session. The Congressional Record Ind ...
'' in 1956.
In the late 20th century, the Kalapuya and other peoples in the confederated tribes reorganized to assert their Native American culture. The United States restored federal recognition in 1977 to the Confederated Tribes of the Siletz and in 1983 to those who were part of the Confederated Tribes of the Grand Ronde Community of Oregon
The Confederated Tribes of the Grand Ronde Community of Oregon (CTGR) is a federally recognized tribe of Indigenous peoples of the Northwest Plateau. They consist of at least 27 Native American tribes with long historical ties to present-day wes ...
.
The Kalapuya have intermarried extensively with descendants of their neighboring tribes. Most of the estimated 4,000 Kalapuya descendants today are enrolled in Confederated Tribes of the Grand Ronde Community of Oregon. This community is working to revive a common creole Native American language, long used for trade among various tribes and now known as '' Chinuk Wawa'', by developing an immersion program for their children. They have had success in producing native speakers and are expanding the program through the eighth grade.
Kalapuya Traditional Ecological Knowledge:
The Kalapuya harvested and gathered different food and other resources in certain areas at certain seasons of the year.
Seasonal Rounds Of the Atfalati-Kalapuya:
In summer(May-August) the Atfalati-Kalapuya obtained Honey, Wild onions, insects such as grasshoppers and crickets. Berries such as Blackberries, Salmonberries, Huckleberries of the evergreen variety and red variety, Oregon Grape, Salal Berries, Thimbleberry, and Black Raspberries. Tarweed, Yampah, Killdeer, Bitterroot, Eels, Wild carrot, Cow Parsnip, Lomantium, Skunk Cabbage, Balasamroot, Yerba Buena, Wild Mint, fish and other fresh water animals such as Sturgeon, Eulachon, Salmon, Crawfish, and Freshwater Mussels. In Fall (September and October) Plants such as Wapato, Bear Berries, Tobacco, Myrtlewood Nuts, Hazelnuts, and Acorns, Animals such as Raccoon, Timber Wolf, Bobcat, Cougar, Chipmonk, Grouse, and Quail. In Winter (November- February) Animals such as Bear, Beaver, Geese, Roosevelt Elk, Black Tailed Deer, and WhiteTailed Deer. In Spring (March and April) plants such as Cats Ear, Bracken Fern, Cattails, and Camas.
How these Resources were obtained:
Fishing was done with a specific basket, a variety of Dipnets, mesh net Traps, and a variety of Fishing spears. Hunting was done by the men of the tribe who used different kinds of snares, a multitude of spears, and bows and arrows to catch their game. Wapato is a starchy tuber that was collected by women using their feet to free the starchy bulb from it's pond floor habitat. The bulb is lighter than water and thus would float on water where it could be easily transferred by hand into a nearby canoe. Camas is another starchy tuber that women of the tribe harvested, they would free the starchy bulb from the soil with a stick fit with a handle and curved on the digging end, after which could be easily gathered into carrying baskets.
Baskets, clothing, tools, mats, plank houses, canoes and rope:
Rope was made from dogbane, Canoes and planks for plank houses from Cedar tree wood, a multitude of waterproof clothing and hats from Cedar bark, a variety of mats from Tule and Cattail, and varieties of household tools, clothing and baskets from rushes.
Trading goods procured through Traditional Ecological Knowledge:
Through the Columbia Trade Network Kalapuyans mostly traded their dried Wapato and Camas flour cakes, for goods from other regions such as buffalo hides, shells, whale products, and dried salmon, some of which would be traded with other tribes for their unique goods.
Beneficial overland burning:
Traditional fire setting was part of a restorative process of well thought out long term land management. These well planned, and well managed burns fueled long term prosperity by enriching the soil, encouraging and resulting in greater biodiversity, clearing brush, disease and pests, and preventing unwanted large scale fires. In Oregon it was a yearly late Autumn event to burn Wild Wheat grass prairies, resulting in the ripe wheat berries being well dried in the fire and left atop the ashes.
Teaching Traditional Ecological Knowledge in modern settings and spreading awareness:
Groups such as th
Komemma Cultural Protection Association
a top rated charity by Charitynavigator.org are doing work to restore the Cultural and Traditional Ecological knowledges of the Kalapuyans.
See also
* Kalapuyan languages
Kalapuyan (also Kalapuya) is a small extinct language family that was spoken in the Willamette Valley of Western Oregon, United States. It consists of three languages.
The Kalapuya language is currently in a state of revival. Kalapuyan descend ...
* Gender Roles
A gender role, or sex role, is a social norm deemed appropriate or desirable for individuals based on their gender or sex.
Gender roles are usually centered on conceptions of masculinity and femininity. The specifics regarding these gende ...
* Neerchokikoo
References
Further reading
* Robert T. Boyd, "Another Look at the 'Fever and Ague' of Western Oregon," ''Ethnohistory,'' vol. 22, no. 2 (Spring 1975), pp. 135–154
In JSTOR
* Robert T. Boyd, ''The Coming of the Spirit of Pestilence: Introduced Infectious Diseases and Population Decline among Northwest Coast Indians.'' Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press, 1999.
* C.F. Coan, "The Adoption of the Reservation Policy in Pacific Northwest, 1853–1855," ''Quarterly of the Oregon Historical Society,'' vol. 23, no. 1 (March 1922), pp. 1–38
In JSTOR
* Leo J. Frachtenberg, "Myths of the Alsea Indians of Northwestern Oregon," ''International Journal of American Linguistics,'' vol. 1, no. 1 (July 1917), pp. 64–75
In JSTOR
* Melinda Marie Jetté, "'Beaver Are Numerous, but the Natives ... Will Not Hunt Them': Native-Fur Trader Relations in the Willamette Valley, 1812–1814," ''Pacific Northwest Quarterly,'' vol. 98, no. 1 (Winter 2006/2007), pp. 3–17
In JSTOR
* Tracy Neal Leavelle, "'We Will Make It Our Own Place': Agriculture and Adaptation at the Grand Ronde Reservation, 1856–1887," ''American Indian Quarterly,'' vol. 22, no. 4 (Autumn 1998), pp. 433–456
In JSTOR
* David Gene Lewis, ''Termination of the Confederated Tribes of the Grand Ronde Community of Oregon: Politics, Community, Identity.'' PhD dissertation. University of Oregon, 2009.
* Harold Mackey, ''The Kalapuyans: A Sourcebook on the Indians of the Willamette Valley.'' Salem, OR: Mission Mill Museum Association, 1974.
* Ronald Spores, "Too Small a Place: The Removal of the Willamette Valley Indians, 1850–1856," ''American Indian Quarterly,'' vol. 17, no. 2 (Spring 1993), pp. 171–191
In JSTOR
External links
Confederated Tribes of Grand Ronde
Confederated Tribes of Siletz Indians
University of Oregon
Article in the Oregon Encyclopedia, about preservation of the language and traditions of the Tualatin Kalapuyans
{{authority control
Confederated Tribes of Siletz Indians
Native American tribes in Oregon
Willamette Valley
Indigenous peoples of the Northwest Plateau