Kabwe Mine
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The Kabwe mine or Broken Hill mine is a former
lead smelting Plants for the production of lead are generally referred to as lead smelters. Primary lead production begins with sintering. Concentrated lead ore is fed into a sintering machine with iron, silica, limestone fluxes, coke, soda ash, pyrite, zinc ...
and mining site near
Kabwe Kabwe is the capital of the Zambian Central Province and the Kabwe District, with a population estimated at 288,598 at the 2022 census. Named Broken Hill until 1966, it was founded when lead and zinc deposits were discovered in 1902. Kabwe also ...
, Zambia, that operated from 1906 to 1994. At its peak, between 1925 and 1974, it was owned by
Anglo American plc Anglo American plc is a British Multinational corporation, multinational mining company with headquarters in London, England. It is the world's largest producer of platinum, with around 40% of world output, as well as being a major producer of ...
and was Africa's largest lead producer. The mine produced extremely toxic
lead pollution Lead poisoning, also known as plumbism and saturnism, is a type of metal poisoning caused by lead in the body. Symptoms may include abdominal pain, constipation, headaches, irritability, memory problems, infertility, numbness and tingling in ...
for ninety years. Several studies have confirmed that over 100,000 people near the mine, including tens of thousands of children, suffer from lead poisoning. Kabwe is one of the world's most polluted towns. In 1921, a "bone cave" that included a fossilised human skull called ''
Kabwe 1 Kabwe 1, also known as Broken Hill Man or Rhodesian Man, is a nearly complete archaic human skull discovered in 1921 at the Kabwe mine, Zambia (at the time, Broken Hill mine, Northern Rhodesia). It dates to around 300,000 years ago, possibly c ...
'' was discovered in the mine. This fossil was the first remains of an extinct human relative to be found in Africa. The skull was studied by
Arthur Smith Woodward Sir Arthur Smith Woodward, FRS (23 May 1864 – 2 September 1944) was an English palaeontologist, known as a world expert in fossil fish. He also described the Piltdown Man fossils, which were later determined to be fraudulent. He is not rel ...
of the
British Museum of Natural History The Natural History Museum in London is a museum that exhibits a vast range of specimens from various segments of natural history. It is one of three major museums on Exhibition Road in South Kensington, the others being the Science Museum (Lo ...
, who published a paper naming the new human precursor ''
Homo rhodesiensis ''Homo rhodesiensis'' is the species name proposed by Arthur Smith Woodward (1921) to classify Kabwe 1 (the "Kabwe skull" or "Broken Hill skull", also "Rhodesian Man"), a Middle Stone Age fossil recovered from Broken Hill mine in Kabwe, Northe ...
''. Study of the Kabwe skull has had important implications for understanding of
human evolution ''Homo sapiens'' is a distinct species of the hominid family of primates, which also includes all the great apes. Over their evolutionary history, humans gradually developed traits such as Human skeletal changes due to bipedalism, bipedalism, de ...
and
prehistory Prehistory, also called pre-literary history, is the period of human history between the first known use of stone tools by hominins   million years ago and the beginning of recorded history with the invention of writing systems. The use ...
. The mine was privatised and closed by the Zambian government in 1995. In 2021, there were still about five million tons of mine
tailings In mining, tailings or tails are the materials left over after the process of separating the valuable fraction from the uneconomic fraction (gangue) of an ore. Tailings are different from overburden, which is the waste rock or other material ...
on the site, and the Zambian government had licensed reprocessing of this waste and further mining by the South African company Jubilee Metals. The area is also mined by artisanal miners. All of these activities pose ongoing health risks for local communities by releasing additional lead. In July 2021, UN special rapporteurs urged the Zambian government to remediate the toxic site. Human rights and environmental organisations also urged the government to address the pollution and resulting health problems in local communities. A lawsuit against Anglo American concerning the pollution was ongoing in South Africa in 2023.


Background

Kabwe is located near the African Copperbelt, north of Zambia's capital,
Lusaka Lusaka ( ) is the Capital city, capital and largest city of Zambia. It is one of the fastest-developing cities in southern Africa. Lusaka is in the southern part of the central plateau at an elevation of about . , the city's population was abo ...
. The town had a population of about 220,000 in 2017. The mine and the area around it were originally called "Broken Hill" after a mine in Australia that possessed similar ores. The area was renamed "Kabwe" after Zambian independence in 1964. Mining in Zambia continues to provide over 40% of government revenue, although it has provided few benefits to local communities who frequently live in poverty.
Lead poisoning Lead poisoning, also known as plumbism and saturnism, is a type of metal poisoning caused by lead in the body. Symptoms may include abdominal pain, constipation, headaches, irritability, memory problems, infertility, numbness and paresthesia, t ...
most seriously affects children who are exposed to lead in dust and frequently put their hands in their mouths. This poisoning can affect brain development and cause permanent damage at a young age. Severe exposure can cause death. Lead in the blood above 5 μg/dL is considered elevated, and death is likely when levels are above 150 μg/dL. The United States
Center for Disease Control The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) is the national public health agency of the United States. It is a United States federal agency under the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), and is headquartered in Atlanta, ...
(CDC) has set 3.5 μg/dL as the allowable level of lead in the blood.


History

During its life, the mine produced over 1.8 million tons (mt) of
zinc Zinc is a chemical element; it has symbol Zn and atomic number 30. It is a slightly brittle metal at room temperature and has a shiny-greyish appearance when oxidation is removed. It is the first element in group 12 (IIB) of the periodic tabl ...
, 0.8 mt of
lead Lead () is a chemical element; it has Chemical symbol, symbol Pb (from Latin ) and atomic number 82. It is a Heavy metal (elements), heavy metal that is density, denser than most common materials. Lead is Mohs scale, soft and Ductility, malleabl ...
metal; 7,816 tonnes of
vanadium oxide Vanadium oxide mainly refers to: * Vanadium(II) oxide (vanadium monoxide), VO * Vanadium(III) oxide (vanadium sesquioxide ''or'' trioxide), V2O3 * Vanadium(IV) oxide (vanadium dioxide), VO2 * Vanadium(V) oxide (vanadium pentoxide), V2O5 Various o ...
; 80,000 kilograms of
silver Silver is a chemical element; it has Symbol (chemistry), symbol Ag () and atomic number 47. A soft, whitish-gray, lustrous transition metal, it exhibits the highest electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, and reflectivity of any metal. ...
; and 235,000 kilograms of
cadmium Cadmium is a chemical element; it has chemical symbol, symbol Cd and atomic number 48. This soft, silvery-white metal is chemically similar to the two other stable metals in group 12 element, group 12, zinc and mercury (element), mercury. Like z ...
. Mining began in 1904 and reached commercial production in 1906 when the first railway in the country, operated by
Rhodesian Railways The National Railways of Zimbabwe (NRZ), formerly Rhodesia Railways (RR), is a Bulawayo headquartered state-owned enterprise that operates the country's national railway system. It was established in 1893 and is governed by an Act of Parliament ...
, reached the Broken Hill mine. During its peak production from 1925 to 1974, the mine was majority owned by
Anglo American plc Anglo American plc is a British Multinational corporation, multinational mining company with headquarters in London, England. It is the world's largest producer of platinum, with around 40% of world output, as well as being a major producer of ...
, which was headquartered in South Africa at the time. Anglo American is one of the largest mining companies in the world. The Zambian government then took over the mine until it closed in 1994. Anglo American has said it never owned or operated the mine. In 2021, there were still about 5 million tons of
mine tailings In mining, tailings or tails are the materials left over after the process of separating the valuable fraction from the uneconomic fraction (gangue) of an ore. Tailings are different from overburden, which is the waste rock or other material th ...
on the site, and the Zambian government had licensed reprocessing of this waste and further mining by the South African company Jubilee Metals. The area is also mined by artisanal miners.


Geology

Europeans discovered the Kabwe deposit in 1902. In 1929, observers reported large caves, "lined with beautiful crystals of
pyromorphite Pyromorphite is a mineral species composed of lead chlorophosphate: Pb5( P O4)3 Cl, sometimes occurring in sufficient abundance to be mined as an ore of lead. Crystals are common, and have the form of a hexagonal prism terminated by the basal p ...
and
cerussite Cerussite (also known as lead carbonate or white lead ore) is a mineral consisting of lead carbonate with the chemical formula PbCO3, and is an important ore of lead. The name is from the Latin ''cerussa'', white lead. ''Cerussa nativa'' was ...
", as well as
descloizite Descloizite is a rare mineral species consisting of basic lead and zinc vanadium, vanadate, , crystallizing in the orthorhombic crystal system and isomorphous with olivenite. Appreciable gallium and germanium may also be incorporated into the cr ...
and
vanadinite Vanadinite is a mineral belonging to the apatite group of Phosphate minerals, phosphates, with the chemical formula lead, Pb5(vanadium, Voxygen, O4)3chlorine, Cl. It is one of the main industrial ores of the metal vanadium and a minor source of ...
. The Kabwe deposit is a carbonate hosted lead-zinc deposit consisting of four primary orebodies. The ore is primarily
sphalerite Sphalerite is a sulfide mineral with the chemical formula . It is the most important ore of zinc. Sphalerite is found in a variety of deposit types, but it is primarily in Sedimentary exhalative deposits, sedimentary exhalative, Carbonate-hoste ...
,
galena Galena, also called lead glance, is the natural mineral form of lead(II) sulfide (PbS). It is the most important ore of lead and an important source of silver. Galena is one of the most abundant and widely distributed sulfide minerals. It crysta ...
,
pyrite The mineral pyrite ( ), or iron pyrite, also known as fool's gold, is an iron sulfide with the chemical formula Fe S2 (iron (II) disulfide). Pyrite is the most abundant sulfide mineral. Pyrite's metallic luster and pale brass-yellow hue ...
,
chalcopyrite Chalcopyrite ( ) is a copper iron sulfide mineral and the most abundant copper ore mineral. It has the chemical formula CuFeS2 and crystallizes in the tetragonal system. It has a brassy to golden yellow color and a Mohs scale, hardness of 3.5 to 4 ...
, briartite and renierite. There are many other secondary minerals. Many aesthetic mineral specimens were produced at Kabwe, some of which were acquired by the British royal family. Many of these specimens were also donated to the
British Museum of Natural History The Natural History Museum in London is a museum that exhibits a vast range of specimens from various segments of natural history. It is one of three major museums on Exhibition Road in South Kensington, the others being the Science Museum (Lo ...
.


Pollution

The mine operated without environmental regulation and poisoned hundreds of thousands of people, especially between 1925 and 1974. Numerous studies since 1971 have confirmed a pattern of lead poisoning in the area, and Kabwe remains one of the world's most polluted towns. A 2011 research project funded by the World Bank determined that lead contamination of soils in nearby communities was 10 times the level allowed by the
CDC The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) is the national public health agency of the United States. It is a United States federal agency under the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), and is headquartered in Atlanta, ...
(which is 400 ppm), and contamination was as high as 10,000 ppm in some places—including the grounds of a local health clinic. A 2015 study found that 100% of children tested had blood lead levels (BLL) exceeding CDC guidelines. Many children have BLLs above 45 μg/dL. A 2018 analysis of results from previous lead toxicity studies confirmed that local communities had high blood lead levels, especially among children and pregnant mothers. Many of these people required immediate medical intervention. A 2020 study assessing population-wide lead exposure found an average BLL of 11.9 μg/dL; over 200,000 people had a BLL above 5 μg/dL.


Conflict

In October 2020, a lawsuit was filed in South Africa against Anglo American on behalf of lead poisoning victims. This lawsuit was ongoing in January 2023 when the
High Court of South Africa The High Court of South Africa is a superior court of law in South Africa. It is divided into nine provinces of South Africa, provincial divisions, some of which sit in more than one location. Each High Court division has general jurisdiction ov ...
heard plaintiffs' request to turn the case into a
class action A class action is a form of lawsuit. Class Action may also refer to: * ''Class Action'' (film), 1991, starring Gene Hackman and Mary Elizabeth Mastrantonio * Class Action (band), a garage house band * "Class Action" (''Teenage Robot''), a 2002 e ...
lawsuit for as many as 140,000 women and children affected by the lead poisoning. The lawsuit could set an important precedent for holding corporations accountable for local impacts in African courts. Anglo American says that it provided technical services at the mine and that the state-owned Zambia Consolidated Copper Mines has accepted liability for the poisoning.


Cleanup

In 2015, some cleanup was funded by environmental groups, and contaminated soil was removed and replaced for about 120 of the most polluted homes. By 2021, the Zambian government had taken some actions to provide healthcare for people but had not taken steps to clean up the toxic waste.


Fossil skull

In 1921, two miners discovered a fossilised skull and some other human remains in the mine.'''' The bones were sent to the London Museum of Natural History, and
Arthur Smith Woodward Sir Arthur Smith Woodward, FRS (23 May 1864 – 2 September 1944) was an English palaeontologist, known as a world expert in fossil fish. He also described the Piltdown Man fossils, which were later determined to be fraudulent. He is not rel ...
published a paper naming the new human precursor ''
Homo rhodesiensis ''Homo rhodesiensis'' is the species name proposed by Arthur Smith Woodward (1921) to classify Kabwe 1 (the "Kabwe skull" or "Broken Hill skull", also "Rhodesian Man"), a Middle Stone Age fossil recovered from Broken Hill mine in Kabwe, Northe ...
.'' This fossil was the first remains of an extinct human relative to be found in Africa. The species was later determined to be ''
Homo heidelbergensis ''Homo heidelbergensis'' is a species of archaic human from the Middle Pleistocene of Europe and Africa, as well as potentially Asia depending on the taxonomic convention used. The species-level classification of ''Homo'' during the Middle Pleis ...
.'' The skull remains at the London Museum, and the Zambian government has requested that it be returned. It has been difficult to determine the age of the skull, partly because the area where it was found has been destroyed by mining activity. Original estimates dated the skull at 500,000 years old, but studies in 2020 used radioactive uranium isotopes to date the skull at closer to 300,000 years old.


References

{{Reflist Environmental disasters in Africa Kabwe Lead mines