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''Juren'' (; 'recommended man') was a rank achieved by people who passed the ''xiangshi'' () exam in the
imperial examination The imperial examination was a civil service examination system in History of China#Imperial China, Imperial China administered for the purpose of selecting candidates for the Civil service#China, state bureaucracy. The concept of choosing bureau ...
system of
imperial China The history of China spans several millennia across a wide geographical area. Each region now considered part of the Chinese world has experienced periods of unity, fracture, prosperity, and strife. Chinese civilization first emerged in the Y ...
. The ''xiangshi'' is also known, in English, as the provincial examination. It was a rank higher than the ''
shengyuan The imperial examination was a civil service examination system in Imperial China administered for the purpose of selecting candidates for the state bureaucracy. The concept of choosing bureaucrats by merit rather than by birth started early in ...
'' rank, but lower than the ''jinshi'' rank, which was the highest degree. To achieve the ''juren'' rank, candidates, who had to already hold the ''shengyuan'' rank, had to pass the provincial qualifying examination, held every three years in the provincial capital. A second, less widespread pathway to gaining the ''juren'' rank was through office purchase. Those with the ''juren'' rank gained
gentry Gentry (from Old French , from ) are "well-born, genteel and well-bred people" of high social class, especially in the past. ''Gentry'', in its widest connotation, refers to people of good social position connected to Landed property, landed es ...
status and experienced
social Social organisms, including human(s), live collectively in interacting populations. This interaction is considered social whether they are aware of it or not, and whether the exchange is voluntary or not. Etymology The word "social" derives fro ...
,
political Politics () is the set of activities that are associated with decision-making, making decisions in social group, groups, or other forms of power (social and political), power relations among individuals, such as the distribution of Social sta ...
and
economic An economy is an area of the Production (economics), production, Distribution (economics), distribution and trade, as well as Consumption (economics), consumption of Goods (economics), goods and Service (economics), services. In general, it is ...
privileges accordingly. The ''juren'' title was also awarded in the
military A military, also known collectively as armed forces, is a heavily armed, highly organized force primarily intended for warfare. Militaries are typically authorized and maintained by a sovereign state, with their members identifiable by a d ...
examination system in imperial China.


History

The term ''juren'' was first used in the
Han Dynasty The Han dynasty was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China (202 BC9 AD, 25–220 AD) established by Liu Bang and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–206 BC ...
to refer to individuals at the
provincial Provincial may refer to: Government & Administration * Provincial capitals, an administrative sub-national capital of a country * Provincial city (disambiguation) * Provincial minister (disambiguation) * Provincial Secretary, a position in Canad ...
level who were recommended for
civil service The civil service is a collective term for a sector of government composed mainly of career civil service personnel hired rather than elected, whose institutional tenure typically survives transitions of political leadership. A civil service offic ...
. Those who were recommended for civil service were required to pass a
central government A central government is the government that is a controlling power over a unitary state. Another distinct but sovereign political entity is a federal government, which may have distinct powers at various levels of government, authorized or deleg ...
examination before they were awarded an official title. The civil service examination system was first officially established in the
Sui dynasty The Sui dynasty ( ) was a short-lived Dynasties of China, Chinese imperial dynasty that ruled from 581 to 618. The re-unification of China proper under the Sui brought the Northern and Southern dynasties era to a close, ending a prolonged peri ...
. During the Sui, Tang, and
Song A song is a musical composition performed by the human voice. The voice often carries the melody (a series of distinct and fixed pitches) using patterns of sound and silence. Songs have a structure, such as the common ABA form, and are usu ...
dynasties, ''juren'' was used to refer to
candidate A candidate, or nominee, is a prospective recipient of an award or honor, or a person seeking or being considered for some kind of position. For example, one can be a candidate for membership in a group (sociology), group or election to an offic ...
s of the state examination. During the
Ming The Ming dynasty, officially the Great Ming, was an imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming was the last imperial dynasty of China ruled by the Han people, t ...
and
Qing The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing, was a Manchu-led Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China and an early modern empire in East Asia. The last imperial dynasty in Chinese history, the Qing dynasty was preceded by the ...
dynasties, the civil examination system matured and became well-established. During these later dynasties, ''juren'' was the title awarded to candidates who had successfully passed the provincial examinations. The awarding of the ''juren'' title ended with the abolition of the civil examinations in 1904.


Appointment

During the Ming and Qing dynasties, there were two pathways to gaining the ''juren'' rank: one, through the civil examination system; the other, through office purchase.


Civil examination

The ''juren'' rank was awarded for candidates who passed the provincial level of the civil examination system in the Ming and Qing dynasties. The ''juren'' who came first in the examination process was awarded the title of ''jieyuan'' (). The qualifying exam was held in each provincial capital, once every three years. Candidates were required to take the examination in their registered province and sitting the examination in unregistered provinces was prohibited. This process was called the ''zhengtu'' (), or the regular path. The provincial examinations, called ''xiangshi'' (), were written exams which occurred in three stages. Candidates were required to participate in all three stages of the examination. A quota system at the provincial level controlled the number of ''juren'' titles awarded. Obtaining the ''juren'' degree through the civil examination pathway was a difficult process, with competition notably increasing during the Ming dynasty. By 1630, there were approximately 49200 candidates from across China competing for 1279 ''juren'' degrees, with only 2.6% of candidates successfully obtaining the degree. From the period of 1800 to 1905, around 1500 men throughout China were awarded the ''juren'' degree after every provincial examination. The examination was open to men from all socio-economic backgrounds, as long as they were holders of the ''shengyuan'' degree, which was the degree directly below the ''juren'' degree in China’s imperial civil examination system. There was no limit on a candidate’s age or on the number of times a candidate could sit the exam and candidates did not require a reference from officials to participate. However, women,
Buddhist Buddhism, also known as Buddhadharma and Dharmavinaya, is an Indian religion and List of philosophies, philosophical tradition based on Pre-sectarian Buddhism, teachings attributed to the Buddha, a wandering teacher who lived in the 6th or ...
and
Daoist Taoism or Daoism (, ) is a diverse philosophical and religious tradition indigenous to China, emphasizing harmony with the Tao ( zh, p=dào, w=tao4). With a range of meaning in Chinese philosophy, translations of Tao include 'way', 'road', ' ...
clergy, and
merchant A merchant is a person who trades in goods produced by other people, especially one who trades with foreign countries. Merchants have been known for as long as humans have engaged in trade and commerce. Merchants and merchant networks operated i ...
s were excluded from participating. It was only during the Ming dynasty when sons of merchants were first legally allowed to take any civil examination. The provincial examination occurred in the
fall Autumn, also known as fall (especially in US & Canada), is one of the four temperate seasons on Earth. Outside the tropics, autumn marks the transition from summer to winter, in September (Northern Hemisphere) or March ( Southern Hemispher ...
of every third year. ''Shengyuan'' degree holders were required to travel to their respective provincial capitals to take three written examinations which were conducted over a week. An Imperial Commissioner, also known as the Grand Examiner, was sent to overlook the examinations from
Beijing Beijing, Chinese postal romanization, previously romanized as Peking, is the capital city of China. With more than 22 million residents, it is the world's List of national capitals by population, most populous national capital city as well as ...
, the
capital Capital and its variations may refer to: Common uses * Capital city, a municipality of primary status ** Capital region, a metropolitan region containing the capital ** List of national capitals * Capital letter, an upper-case letter Econom ...
of China at the time. The examination was governed by strict rules to ensure the process was fair. All
essay An essay ( ) is, generally, a piece of writing that gives the author's own argument, but the definition is vague, overlapping with those of a Letter (message), letter, a term paper, paper, an article (publishing), article, a pamphlet, and a s ...
s were first transcribed in red ink before marking, to prevent examiners from identifying the candidates by their
calligraphy Calligraphy () is a visual art related to writing. It is the design and execution of lettering with a pen, ink brush, or other writing instruments. Contemporary calligraphic practice can be defined as "the art of giving form to signs in an e ...
and showing favourable treatment to particular candidates. As many as eight examiners would grade one candidate’s exam, whose name was concealed. Examiners would be removed from office if it was found that they had favoured a particular candidate during the grading of the exams. During the period that the Imperial Commissioner was in the province to overlook the examinations, his residence was guarded to prevent any candidates or friends or family of candidates from approaching him. The provincial examination took place over three sessions with each session of the exam being held on a separate day. Three days would pass between each day of examination. The examination process started early in the day, Candidates assembled by the gates of the examination hall and candidates were allowed in enter the hall once their name was called. Each candidate was given a roll of paper which identified the examination cell the candidate was to occupy in the exam. The examination hall was divided into long alleys lined with open cells, in which candidates took their exam. At one time, there could be up to ten or twelve thousand individuals in the same examination hall, from day to night.


Curriculum

Each of the three sessions of the provincial examination tested candidates on separate areas of the
curriculum In education, a curriculum (; : curriculums or curricula ) is the totality of student experiences that occur in an educational process. The term often refers specifically to a planned sequence of instruction, or to a view of the student's experi ...
. During the Qing dynasty, the first session required candidates to answer three questions based on the
Four Books The Four Books and Five Classics are authoritative and important books associated with Confucianism, written before 300 BC. They are traditionally believed to have been either written, edited or commented by Confucius or one of his disciples. S ...
and four questions on one of the
Five Classics The Four Books and Five Classics are authoritative and important books associated with Confucianism, written before 300 BC. They are traditionally believed to have been either written, edited or commented by Confucius or one of his disciples. S ...
. The particular Classic on which the four questions were answered on was chosen by the candidate. In the second session, the candidate was required to write a discussion of the
Classic of Filial Piety The ''Classic of Filial Piety'', also known by its Chinese name as the ''Xiaojing'', is a Confucian classic treatise giving advice on filial piety: that is, how to behave towards a senior such as a father, an elder brother, or a ruler. The ...
. Additionally, the candidate was required to compose five essays on writing
verdict In law, a verdict is the formal finding of fact made by a jury on matters or questions submitted to the jury by a judge. In a bench trial, the judge's decision near the end of the trial is simply referred to as a finding. In England and Wales ...
s and attempt any one of the following political forms of writing: an address to the
emperor The word ''emperor'' (from , via ) can mean the male ruler of an empire. ''Empress'', the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife (empress consort), mother/grandmother (empress dowager/grand empress dowager), or a woman who rules ...
, an imperial declaration, or another form of imperial decree. In the third session, five essay questions on problems concerning the Five Classics, history and administrative affairs were to be answered. In addition to the content of the exam,
form Form is the shape, visual appearance, or configuration of an object. In a wider sense, the form is the way something happens. Form may also refer to: *Form (document), a document (printed or electronic) with spaces in which to write or enter dat ...
was an examinable aspect of the candidate’s submission. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, all candidates’ essays were required to be composed in the form of
eight-legged essay The eight-legged essay () was a style of essay in imperial examinations during the Ming and Qing dynasties in China. The eight-legged essay was needed for those candidates in these civil service tests to show their merits for government servic ...
s, which was a form of prose-writing involving strict enforcement of rigid parallel-prose styles. Candidates were rejected for writing in any structure which diverged from this standardised form. Throughout the use of the civil examination system, there were minor changes to the provincial examination format and curriculum. In 1663, the imperial examination
banned A ban is a formal or informal prohibition of something. Bans are formed for the prohibition of activities within a certain political territory. Some bans in commerce are referred to as embargoes. ''Ban'' is also used as a verb similar in meaning ...
writing in the eight-legged essay form; however, the form was reintroduced in 1668. In 1687, the imperial declaration and decree were removed as possible political forms of writing for candidates in the second session. In 1758, the first session was changed to include a question on Song dynasty
Neo-Confucian Neo-Confucianism (, often shortened to ''lǐxué'' 理學, literally "School of Principle") is a Morality, moral, Ethics, ethical, and metaphysics, metaphysical Chinese philosophy influenced by Confucianism, which originated with Han Yu (768 ...
rationalist books. In 1767, the first session was changed to consist of only three questions on the Four Books while the discussion on the Five Classics was moved to the second session. Writing verdicts and addresses to the emperor were also abolished. Instead, a poetry question was introduced. In 1782, the question on poetry was moved to the first session and the question on Song Neo-Confucian rationalism was moved to the second session. In 1787, the candidate’s option of choosing any one of the Five Classics to discuss in the exam was changed so that a particular book from the Five Classics was set for candidates to compulsorily answer. In the same year, the question on Neo-Confucian rationalism was removed from the
syllabus A syllabus (; : syllabuses or syllabi) or specification is a document that communicates information about an Academy, academic course or class and defines expectations and responsibilities. It is generally an overview or summary of the curriculum. ...
. By 1793, candidates were expected to write essays on all Five Classics. After 1793, the syllabus of the provincial examination remained fixed.


Office purchase

The second pathway to obtaining the ''juren'' degree was through office purchase. Obtaining degrees through office purchase was known as the ''yitu'' (), or the irregular path to gaining a degree. Office purchase, known as ''juanna'' (), was the practice of obtaining degrees and offices through
purchase Purchasing is the procurement process a business or organization uses to acquire goods or services to accomplish its goals. Although there are several organizations that attempt to set standards in the purchasing process, processes can vary g ...
, instead of through successfully passing the civil examinations. The practice was formally introduced in the Ming dynasty and continued to exist through the Qing dynasty as a common practice. This was a
legal Law is a set of rules that are created and are law enforcement, enforceable by social or governmental institutions to regulate behavior, with its precise definition a matter of longstanding debate. It has been variously described as a Socia ...
process and was overseen by the
government A government is the system or group of people governing an organized community, generally a State (polity), state. In the case of its broad associative definition, government normally consists of legislature, executive (government), execu ...
. During the Qing dynasty, men could become officials by making a payment in
silver Silver is a chemical element; it has Symbol (chemistry), symbol Ag () and atomic number 47. A soft, whitish-gray, lustrous transition metal, it exhibits the highest electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, and reflectivity of any metal. ...
to the government. Through office purchase, men did not need to meet any eligibility requirements to be appointed the ''juren'' rank. Those who obtained the ''juren'' degree through office purchase enjoyed the same benefits, privileges and opportunity for career advancement as those who obtained the degree through the civil examinations. Men could register for the prefecture-level entrance examination and then purchase the ''juren'' degree. It was also common for ''juren'' degree-holders to use office purchase to further their careers.


Responsibilities and privileges

Obtaining the ''juren'' rank enabled degree-holders to obtain official positions. In the Tang dynasty, only ''jinshi'' degree-holders were eligible for official positions. However, in the Ming and Qing dynasties, passing the provincial examination and obtaining the ''juren'' degree entitled the degree-holder to obtain a lower-level government official role. /sup> In the early- and mid-Ming dynasty, ''juren'' served as prefecture,
county A county () is a geographic region of a country used for administrative or other purposesL. Brookes (ed.) '' Chambers Dictionary''. Edinburgh: Chambers Harrap Publishers Ltd, 2005. in some nations. The term is derived from the Old French denoti ...
, and department education officials. This entitled them to act as provincial examination officials. ''Juren'' who had failed to obtain the ''jinshi'' degree were immediately eligible to become education officials and act as directors and subdirectors of prefectural and county schools. In the late-Ming dynasty, ''juren'' were placed in posts of county magistrates, as well as directors and subdirectors of schools. Those who were appointed
magistrate The term magistrate is used in a variety of systems of governments and laws to refer to a civilian officer who administers the law. In ancient Rome, a '' magistratus'' was one of the highest ranking government officers, and possessed both judi ...
were responsible for collecting
tax A tax is a mandatory financial charge or levy imposed on an individual or legal entity by a governmental organization to support government spending and public expenditures collectively or to regulate and reduce negative externalities. Tax co ...
es from the residents of their county. Additionally, magistrates were responsible for maintaining law, order, and the moral and ethical standards in the areas under their control. However, by the end of the Ming dynasty and into the Qing dynasty, ''jinshi'' degree-holders had begun to displace ''juren'' degree-holders in high-level official positions. The ''juren'' rank brought degree-holders and their families such substantial privileges that it was not uncommon for families to pool their resources to support promising individuals from poor families during the examination process. Only those awarded with the ''juren'' degree had the opportunity to obtain the highest degree of the civil examination system, the ''jinshi'' degree'','' through the national examination. In the Qing dynasty, it became a requirement for candidates of the ''jinshi'' rank to have a father who had passed the provincial examination and had acquired at least a ''juren'' rank. An additional benefit of the ''juren'' degree was that the title was awarded for life, unlike the lower prefectural ''shengyuan'' degree. The ''juren'' degree could not be inherited. Aside from the possibility of gaining higher official roles, ''juren'' also gained a higher social status. In imperial China, examinations and merit were strongly associated with social status, wealth, prestige, and political power. This is reflected in how ''juren'' were distinctly addressed as ''laoye'' ("your honour") by commoners. Gaining the ''juren'' rank brought the degree-holder social privileges such as improved prospects for good marriages. Additionally, ''juren'' gave their family the ability to gain or maintain their elite status. For example, ''juren'' degree-holders were eligible to erect flagpoles with red and gold
silk Silk is a natural fiber, natural protein fiber, some forms of which can be weaving, woven into textiles. The protein fiber of silk is composed mainly of fibroin and is most commonly produced by certain insect larvae to form cocoon (silk), c ...
flag A flag is a piece of textile, fabric (most often rectangular) with distinctive colours and design. It is used as a symbol, a signalling device, or for decoration. The term ''flag'' is also used to refer to the graphic design employed, and fla ...
s at their residences to announce their achievements. Their families were referred to as "flagpole families", which was an honour and symbolised the higher social status of the family. The legal privileges experienced by ''juren'' include exemption from labour services required of all commoners except civil examination degree-holders. They were also exempt from normal
penal code A criminal code or penal code is a document that compiles all, or a significant amount of, a particular jurisdiction's criminal law. Typically a criminal code will contain Crime, offences that are recognised in the jurisdiction, penalties that ...
s and
corporal punishment A corporal punishment or a physical punishment is a punishment which is intended to cause physical pain to a person. When it is inflicted on Minor (law), minors, especially in home and school settings, its methods may include spanking or Padd ...
, and could not be arrested without special imperial order. ''Juren'' households also had economic privileges in the local community, such as a guaranteed minimum level of
employment Employment is a relationship between two party (law), parties Regulation, regulating the provision of paid Labour (human activity), labour services. Usually based on a employment contract, contract, one party, the employer, which might be a cor ...
and pay, as well as tax reductions and exemptions. Other privileges of the ''juren'' rank included the right of having different clothing,
carriage A carriage is a two- or four-wheeled horse-drawn vehicle for passengers. In Europe they were a common mode of transport for the wealthy during the Roman Empire, and then again from around 1600 until they were replaced by the motor car around 1 ...
s, guards,
servants A domestic worker is a person who works within a residence and performs a variety of household services for an individual, from providing cleaning and household maintenance, or cooking, laundry and ironing, or care for children and elderly d ...
, and
funeral A funeral is a ceremony connected with the final disposition of a corpse, such as a burial or cremation, with the attendant observances. Funerary customs comprise the complex of beliefs and practices used by a culture to remember and respect th ...
and
grave A grave is a location where a cadaver, dead body (typically that of a human, although sometimes that of an animal) is burial, buried or interred after a funeral. Graves are usually located in special areas set aside for the purpose of buria ...
ceremonies than commoners. For example, degree-holders were entitled to wear a scholar's robe.


Other usage


Military

During
Wu Zetian Wu Zetian (624 – 16 December 705), personal name Wu Zhao, was List of rulers of China#Tang dynasty, Empress of China from 660 to 705, ruling first through others and later in her own right. She ruled as queen consort , empress consort th ...
's reign, a
military A military, also known collectively as armed forces, is a heavily armed, highly organized force primarily intended for warfare. Militaries are typically authorized and maintained by a sovereign state, with their members identifiable by a d ...
examination system was introduced, which continued until the Qing dynasty. The military examinations were modelled on the civil examination system, held once every three years, with successful candidates being awarded the title of military ''juren'', or ''wu juren'' (). Military examinations involved various physical tests, such as ability in
archery Archery is the sport, practice, or skill of using a Bow and arrow, bow to shooting, shoot arrows.Paterson ''Encyclopaedia of Archery'' p. 17 The word comes from the Latin ''arcus'', meaning bow. Historically, archery has been used for hunting ...
,
equestrianism Equestrianism (from Latin , , , 'horseman', 'horse'), commonly known as horse riding ( Commonwealth English) or horseback riding (American English), includes the disciplines of riding, driving, and vaulting. This broad description includes the ...
, and handling
polearms A polearm or pole weapon is a close combat weapon in which the main fighting part of the weapon is fitted to the end of a long shaft, typically of wood, extending the user's effective range and striking power. Polearms are predominantly melee w ...
. Aside from the need for candidates to satisfactorily demonstrate their physical abilities, the military exams had written components that required candidates to master military or classic texts, such as
Sun Tzu Sun Tzu (; zh, t=孫子, s=孙子, first= t, p=Sūnzǐ) may have been a Chinese General, military general, strategist, philosopher, and writer who lived during the Eastern Zhou period (771–256 BC). Sun Tzu is traditionally credited as the au ...
's ''
The Art of War ''The Art of War'' is an ancient Chinese military treatise dating from the late Spring and Autumn period (roughly 5th century BC). The work, which is attributed to the ancient Chinese military strategist Sun Tzu ("Master Sun"), is compos ...
''. Only individuals with the ''wu juren'' title could participate in the metropolitan military exam, with successful candidates of this exam being awarded the military ''jinshi'', or ''wu jinshi'' () title.


Notable people

Notable people who achieved ''juren'' as their highest degree include: *
Shen Defu Shen Defu () (1578–1642) was a Chinese writer and bureaucrat during the Ming Dynasty. He lived in Zhejiang. In 1618, he achieved the rank of ''juren'' in the Imperial examinations, but failed an exam for promotion to the rank of ''jinshi'' a yea ...
*
Yang Shoujing Yang Shoujing (; 1839 – 9 January 1915) was a Chinese antiquarian, bibliophile, calligrapher, diplomat, geographer, and historian. He is best known for the historical atlas ''Lidai yudi tu'', commonly called the ''Yangtu'' ("Yang's atlas"), th ...
*
Wei Yuan Wei Yuan (; April23, 1794March26, 1857), born Wei Yuanda (), courtesy names Moshen () and Hanshi (), was a Chinese scholar from Shaoyang, Hunan. He moved to Yangzhou, Jiangsu in 1831, where he remained for the rest of his life. Wei obtained the ...
, scholar and secretariat *
Zuo Zongtang Zuo Zongtang (左宗棠, Xiang Chinese: ; Wade-Giles spelling: Tso Tsung-t'ang; November 10, 1812 – September 5, 1885), sometimes referred to as General Tso, was a Chinese statesman and army officer of the late Qing dynasty. Born in Xian ...
, general *
Liang Qichao Liang Qichao (Chinese: 梁啓超; Wade–Giles: ''Liang2 Chʻi3-chʻao1''; Yale romanization of Cantonese, Yale: ''Lèuhng Kái-chīu''; ) (February 23, 1873 – January 19, 1929) was a Chinese politician, social and political activist, jour ...
, scholar and politician *
Wu Zhihui Wu Jingheng (), commonly known by his courtesy name Wu Zhihui (Woo Chih-hui, ; 1865–1953), also known as Wu Shi-Fee, was a Chinese linguist and philosopher who was the chairman of the 1912–13 Commission on the Unification of Pronunciatio ...
, anarchist writer and Republic of China official *
Huang Zunxian Huang Zunxian ( zh, t=黃遵憲, May 29, 1848March 28, 1905), courtesy name Gongdu (), was a Chinese official, scholar, and writer, active during the late Qing dynasty. As a poet, he published more than a hundred poems. He was born in Jiayingzh ...
, Chinese official, scholar, and writer, active during the late Qing dynasty *
Zhu Xingyuan Zhu Xinyuan (; born 1880) was a politician and diplomat in the Republic of China (1912–1949), Republic of China. He was an important politician during the Provisional Government of the Republic of China (1937–1940), Provisional Government of ...
, politician and collaborator with Japan


References

{{Education in China Academic degrees Imperial examination