Junipers are
conifer
Conifers () are a group of conifer cone, cone-bearing Spermatophyte, seed plants, a subset of gymnosperms. Scientifically, they make up the phylum, division Pinophyta (), also known as Coniferophyta () or Coniferae. The division contains a sin ...
ous trees and shrubs in the
genus
Genus (; : genera ) is a taxonomic rank above species and below family (taxonomy), family as used in the biological classification of extant taxon, living and fossil organisms as well as Virus classification#ICTV classification, viruses. In bino ...
''Juniperus'' ( ) of the cypress family
Cupressaceae. Depending on the
taxonomy
image:Hierarchical clustering diagram.png, 280px, Generalized scheme of taxonomy
Taxonomy is a practice and science concerned with classification or categorization. Typically, there are two parts to it: the development of an underlying scheme o ...
, between 50 and 67 species of junipers are widely
distributed throughout the
Northern Hemisphere
The Northern Hemisphere is the half of Earth that is north of the equator. For other planets in the Solar System, north is defined by humans as being in the same celestial sphere, celestial hemisphere relative to the invariable plane of the Solar ...
as far south as tropical
Africa
Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most populous continent after Asia. At about 30.3 million km2 (11.7 million square miles) including adjacent islands, it covers 20% of Earth's land area and 6% of its total surfac ...
, including the
Arctic
The Arctic (; . ) is the polar regions of Earth, polar region of Earth that surrounds the North Pole, lying within the Arctic Circle. The Arctic region, from the IERS Reference Meridian travelling east, consists of parts of northern Norway ( ...
, parts of Asia, and
Central America
Central America is a subregion of North America. Its political boundaries are defined as bordering Mexico to the north, Colombia to the southeast, the Caribbean to the east, and the Pacific Ocean to the southwest. Central America is usually ...
. The highest-known juniper forest occurs at an altitude of in southeastern
Tibet
Tibet (; ''Böd''; ), or Greater Tibet, is a region in the western part of East Asia, covering much of the Tibetan Plateau and spanning about . It is the homeland of the Tibetan people. Also resident on the plateau are other ethnic groups s ...
and the northern
Himalayas
The Himalayas, or Himalaya ( ), is a mountain range in Asia, separating the plains of the Indian subcontinent from the Tibetan Plateau. The range has some of the Earth's highest peaks, including the highest, Mount Everest. More than list of h ...
, creating one of the highest
tree line
The tree line is the edge of a habitat at which trees are capable of growing and beyond which they are not. It is found at high elevations and high latitudes. Beyond the tree line, trees cannot tolerate the environmental conditions (usually low ...
s on earth.
Description

Junipers vary in size and shape from tall
tree
In botany, a tree is a perennial plant with an elongated stem, or trunk, usually supporting branches and leaves. In some usages, the definition of a tree may be narrower, e.g., including only woody plants with secondary growth, only ...
s, tall, to columnar or low-spreading
shrub
A shrub or bush is a small to medium-sized perennial woody plant. Unlike herbaceous plants, shrubs have persistent woody stems above the ground. Shrubs can be either deciduous or evergreen. They are distinguished from trees by their multiple ...
s with long, trailing branches. They are
evergreen
In botany, an evergreen is a plant which has Leaf, foliage that remains green and functional throughout the year. This contrasts with deciduous plants, which lose their foliage completely during the winter or dry season. Consisting of many diffe ...
with needle-like and/or scale-like
leaves
A leaf (: leaves) is a principal appendage of the stem of a vascular plant, usually borne laterally above ground and specialized for photosynthesis. Leaves are collectively called foliage, as in "autumn foliage", while the leaves, stem, ...
. They can be either
monoecious
Monoecy (; adj. monoecious ) is a sexual system in seed plants where separate male and female cones or flowers are present on the same plant. It is a monomorphic sexual system comparable with gynomonoecy, andromonoecy and trimonoecy, and contras ...
or
dioecious
Dioecy ( ; ; adj. dioecious, ) is a characteristic of certain species that have distinct unisexual individuals, each producing either male or female gametes, either directly (in animals) or indirectly (in seed plants). Dioecious reproduction is ...
. The female
seed cones are very distinctive, with fleshy,
fruit
In botany, a fruit is the seed-bearing structure in flowering plants (angiosperms) that is formed from the ovary after flowering.
Fruits are the means by which angiosperms disseminate their seeds. Edible fruits in particular have long propaga ...
-like coalescing scales which fuse together to form
a berrylike structure (
galbulus), long, with one to 12 unwinged, hard-shelled
seed
In botany, a seed is a plant structure containing an embryo and stored nutrients in a protective coat called a ''testa''. More generally, the term "seed" means anything that can be Sowing, sown, which may include seed and husk or tuber. Seeds ...
s. In some species, these "berries" are red-brown or orange, but in most, they are blue; they are often aromatic and can be used as a
spice
In the culinary arts, a spice is any seed, fruit, root, Bark (botany), bark, or other plant substance in a form primarily used for flavoring or coloring food. Spices are distinguished from herbs, which are the leaves, flowers, or stems of pl ...
. The seed maturation time varies between species from 6 to 18 months after pollination. The male cones are similar to the other
Cupressaceae, with 6 to 20 scales.
In
hardiness zone
A hardiness zone is a geographic area defined as having a certain average annual minimum temperature, a factor relevant to the survival of many plants. In some systems other statistics are included in the calculations. The original and most widely ...
s 7 through 10, junipers can bloom and release
pollen
Pollen is a powdery substance produced by most types of flowers of seed plants for the purpose of sexual reproduction. It consists of pollen grains (highly reduced Gametophyte#Heterospory, microgametophytes), which produce male gametes (sperm ...
several times each year. Different junipers bloom in autumn, while most pollinate from early winter until late spring.

Many junipers (e.g. ''
J. chinensis'', ''
J. virginiana'') have two types of leaves; seedlings and some twigs of older trees have needle-like leaves long, on mature plants the leaves are overlapping like (mostly) tiny scales, measuring . When juvenile foliage occurs on mature plants, it is most often found on shaded shoots, with adult foliage in full sunlight. Leaves on fast-growing 'whip' shoots are often intermediate between juvenile and adult.
In some species (e.g. ''
J. communis'', ''
J. squamata''), all the foliage is of the juvenile needle-like type, with no scale leaves. In some of these (e.g. ''J. communis''), the needles are jointed at the base, while in others (e.g. ''J. squamata''), the needles merge smoothly with the stem.
The needle leaves of junipers are hard and sharp, making the juvenile foliage very prickly to handle. This can be a valuable identification feature in seedlings, as the otherwise very similar juvenile foliage of cypresses (''
Cupressus
''Cupressus'' (common name cypress) is one of several genus, genera of evergreen conifers within the Family (biology), family Cupressaceae; for the others, see cypress. It is considered a Polyphyly, polyphyletic group. Based on genetic and morpho ...
,
Chamaecyparis'') and other related genera are soft and not prickly.
Junipers are
gymnosperm
The gymnosperms ( ; ) are a group of woody, perennial Seed plant, seed-producing plants, typically lacking the protective outer covering which surrounds the seeds in flowering plants, that include Pinophyta, conifers, cycads, Ginkgo, and gnetoph ...
s, which means they have seeds, but no flowers or fruits. Depending on the species, the seeds they produce take 1–3 years to develop. The impermeable coat of the seed keeps water from getting in and protects the embryo when dispersed. It can also result in a long
dormancy
Dormancy is a period in an organism's Biological life cycle, life cycle when growth, development, and (in animals) physical activity are temporarily stopped. This minimizes metabolism, metabolic activity and therefore helps an organism to conserv ...
that is usually broken by physically damaging the seed coat. Dispersal can occur from being swallowed whole by frugivores and mammals. The resistance of the
seed coat allows it to be passed down through the digestive system without being destroyed along the way. These seeds last a long time, as they can be dispersed long distances over the course of a few years.
Classification
Sections
The genus has been divided into sections in somewhat different ways. A system based on
molecular phylogenetic
Molecular phylogenetics () is the branch of phylogeny that analyzes genetic, hereditary molecular differences, predominantly in DNA sequences, to gain information on an organism's evolutionary relationships. From these analyses, it is possible to ...
data from 2013 and earlier used three sections:
* Section ''Caryocedrus'' – 1 species with large, blue, woody, 3-seeded cones; native to the Mediterranean
* Section ''Juniperus'' – 14 species with blue or red seed cones, often with 3 seeds; 12 species native to the
eastern hemisphere, one endemic to North America, and one species, ''J. communis'', circumboreal
* Section ''Sabina'' – about 60 species with variously coloured seed cones with 1 to 13 seeds; species about equally divided between the eastern and western hemispheres ''Juniperus'' sect. ''Sabina'' was further divided into clades.
[
A new classification of gymnosperms published in 2022 recognised the sections as three separate genera: ''Arceuthos'' for section ''Caryocedrus'', ''Sabina'' for section ''Sabina'', and ''Juniperus'' ''sensu stricto'' for section ''Juniperus''.
]
Species
''Juniperus'' sect. ''Caryocedrus''
Cones with three seeds fused together; needles with two stomatal bands.
One species:
*'' Juniperus drupacea'' – Syrian juniper
''Juniperus'' sect. ''Juniperus''
Needle-leaf junipers; the adult leaves are needle-like, in whorls of three, and jointed at the base. Species:
*''Juniperus'' sect. ''Juniperus'' subsect. ''Juniperus'' – cones with three separate seeds; needles with one stomatal band
**'' Juniperus communis'' – common juniper
***''Juniperus communis'' subsp. ''alpina'' – alpine juniper
**'' Juniperus conferta'', syn. ''Juniperus rigida'' var. ''conferta'' (Parl.) Patschke – shore juniper
**'' Juniperus rigida'' – Temple juniper or needle juniper
*''Juniperus'' sect. ''Juniperus'' subsect. ''Oxycedrus'' – cones with three separate seeds; needles with two stomatal bands
**'' Juniperus brevifolia'' – Azores juniper
**'' Juniperus cedrus'' – Canary Islands juniper
**'' Juniperus formosana'' – Chinese prickly juniper
**'' Juniperus lutchuensis'', syn. ''Juniperus taxifolia'' var. ''lutchuensis'' (Koidz.) Satake – Ryukyu juniper
**''Juniperus oxycedrus
''Juniperus oxycedrus'', vernacularly called Cade, cade juniper, prickly juniper, prickly cedar, or sharp cedar, is a species of juniper, native across the Mediterranean region, growing on a variety of rocky sites from sea level. The specific ep ...
'' – Western prickly juniper, cade juniper
**'' Juniperus macrocarpa'' – large-berry juniper
''Juniperus'' sect. ''Sabina''
Scale-leaf junipers; adult leaves are mostly scale-like, similar to those of ''Cupressus
''Cupressus'' (common name cypress) is one of several genus, genera of evergreen conifers within the Family (biology), family Cupressaceae; for the others, see cypress. It is considered a Polyphyly, polyphyletic group. Based on genetic and morpho ...
'' species, in opposite pairs or whorls of three, and the juvenile needle-like leaves are not jointed at the base (including in the few that have only needle-like leaves; see below right).
= Old World species
=
*''Juniperus chinensis
''Juniperus chinensis'', the Chinese juniper, is a species of plant in the cypress family Cupressaceae, native to China, Myanmar, Japan, Korea and the Russian Far East. Growing tall, it is a very variable coniferous evergreen tree or shrub.
...
'' – Chinese juniper
*'' Juniperus convallium'' – Mekong juniper
*'' Juniperus excelsa'' – Greek juniper
*'' Juniperus foetidissima'' – stinking juniper
*'' Juniperus indica'' – Himalayan black juniper
*'' Juniperus komarovii'' – Komarov's juniper
*'' Juniperus phoenicea'' – Phoenicean juniper
*'' Juniperus pingii'' – Ping juniper
*'' Juniperus procera'' – East African juniper
*'' Juniperus procumbens'' – Ibuki juniper
*'' Juniperus pseudosabina'' – Xinjiang juniper
*'' Juniperus recurva'' – Himalayan juniper
*'' Juniperus sabina'' – Savin juniper
*'' Juniperus saltuaria'' – Sichuan juniper
*'' Juniperus semiglobosa'' – Himalayan pencil juniper
*''Juniperus seravschanica
''Juniperus seravschanica'' is a species of juniper. Common names include Pashtun juniper ( ''ōbəx̌ta'', " specieswhich sucks water"; Pashto: پښتني صنوبر).
It ranges from southernmost Kazakhstan through Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, e ...
'' – Pashtun juniper
*'' Juniperus squamata'' – flaky juniper
*'' Juniperus thurifera'' – Spanish juniper
*'' Juniperus tibetica'' – Tibetan juniper
= New World species
=
*'' Juniperus angosturana'' – Mexican one-seed juniper
*''Juniperus ashei
''Juniperus ashei'' (Ashe juniper, mountain cedar, blueberry juniper, post cedar, or just cedar) is a drought-tolerant evergreen tree, native from northeastern Mexico and the south-central United States to southern Missouri. The largest areas are ...
'' – Ashe juniper
*'' Juniperus arizonica'' – redberry juniper, roseberry juniper
*'' Juniperus barbadensis'' – West Indies juniper
*'' Juniperus bermudiana'' – Bermuda juniper
*'' Juniperus blancoi'' – Blanco's juniper
*'' Juniperus californica'' – California juniper
*'' Juniperus coahuilensis'' – Coahuila juniper
*'' Juniperus comitana'' – Comitán juniper
*'' Juniperus deppeana'' – alligator juniper
*'' Juniperus durangensis'' – Durango juniper
*'' Juniperus flaccida'' – Mexican weeping juniper
*'' Juniperus gamboana'' – Gamboa juniper
*'' Juniperus grandis'' – Sierra juniper
*'' Juniperus horizontalis'' – creeping juniper
*'' Juniperus jaliscana'' – Jalisco juniper
*'' Juniperus maritima'', syn. ''Juniperus scopulorum'' – seaside juniper
*'' Juniperus monosperma'' – one-seed juniper
*'' Juniperus monticola'' – mountain juniper
*'' Juniperus occidentalis'' – western juniper
*''Juniperus osteosperma
''Juniperus osteosperma'' (Utah juniper; syn. ''J. utahensis'') is a shrub or small tree native to the southwestern United States.
Description
The plant reaches , rarely to 9 m, tall. The shoots are fairly thick compared to most junipers, i ...
'' – Utah juniper
*'' Juniperus pinchotii'' – Pinchot juniper
*'' Juniperus saltillensis'' – Saltillo juniper
*'' Juniperus scopulorum'' – Rocky Mountain juniper
*'' Juniperus standleyi'' – Standley's juniper
*'' Juniperus virginiana'' – eastern juniper, eastern redcedar
**''Juniperus virginiana'' subsp. ''silicicola'' – Southern juniper
*'' Juniperus zanonii'' (proposed)
Additional species
, Plants of the World Online
Plants of the World Online (POWO) is an online taxonomic database published by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.
History
Following the Convention on Biological Diversity, the Royal Botanic Gardens in Kew launched Plants of the World Online i ...
accepts the following additional species to those listed above:
*'' Juniperus canariensis'' Guyot & Mathou
*'' Juniperus coxii'' A.B.Jacks.
*'' Juniperus deltoides'' R.P.Adams
*'' Juniperus gracilior'' Pilg.
*'' Juniperus mairei'' Lemée & H.Lév.
*'' Juniperus morrisonicola'' Hayata
*'' Juniperus mucronata'' R.P.Adams
*'' Juniperus navicularis'' Gand.
*'' Juniperus poblana'' (Martínez) R.P.Adams
*'' Juniperus polycarpos'' K.Koch
*'' Juniperus przewalskii'' Kom.
*'' Juniperus saxicola'' Britton & P.Wilson
*'' Juniperus taxifolia'' Hook. & Arn.
*'' Juniperus tsukusiensis'' Masam.
*'' Juniperus turbinata'' Guss.
Ecology
Juniper plants thrive in a variety of environments. The junipers from Lahaul valley can be found in dry, rocky locations planted in stony soils. Grazing animals and the villagers are rapidly using up these plants. There are several important features of the leaves and wood of this plant that cause villagers to cut down these trees and make use of them. Additionally, the western juniper plants, a particular species in the juniper genus, are found in woodland
A woodland () is, in the broad sense, land covered with woody plants (trees and shrubs), or in a narrow sense, synonymous with wood (or in the U.S., the '' plurale tantum'' woods), a low-density forest forming open habitats with plenty of sunli ...
s where there are large, open spaces. Junipers are known to encompass open areas so that they have more exposure to rainfall. Decreases in fires and a lack of livestock grazing are the two major causes of western juniper takeover. This invasion of junipers is driving changes in the environment. For instance, the ecosystem for other species previously living in the environment and farm animals has been compromised. When junipers increase in population, there is a decrease in woody species like mountain big sagebrush and aspen
Aspen is a common name for certain tree species in the Populus sect. Populus, of the ''Populus'' (poplar) genus.
Species
These species are called aspens:
* ''Populus adenopoda'' – Chinese aspen (China, south of ''P. tremula'')
* ''Populus da ...
. Among the juniper trees themselves, there is increased competition, which results in a decrease in berry production. Herbaceous cover decreases, and junipers are often mistaken for weeds. As a result, several farmers have thinned the juniper trees or removed them completely. However, this reduction did not result in any significant difference on wildlife survival. Some small mammals found it advantageous to have thinner juniper trees, while cutting down the entire tree was not favorable.
Some junipers are susceptible to '' Gymnosporangium'' rust disease and can be a serious problem for those people growing apple
An apple is a round, edible fruit produced by an apple tree (''Malus'' spp.). Fruit trees of the orchard or domestic apple (''Malus domestica''), the most widely grown in the genus, are agriculture, cultivated worldwide. The tree originated ...
trees, an alternate host of the disease.
Juniper is the exclusive food plant of the larva
A larva (; : larvae ) is a distinct juvenile form many animals undergo before metamorphosis into their next life stage. Animals with indirect development such as insects, some arachnids, amphibians, or cnidarians typically have a larval phase ...
e of some moths and butterflies, including '' Bucculatrix inusitata'', juniper carpet, '' Chionodes electella'', '' Chionodes viduella'', juniper pug, and pine beauty. Those of the tortrix moth '' Cydia duplicana'' feed on the bark around injuries or canker.
Cultivation
Junipers are among the most popular conifers to be cultivated as ornamental subjects for parks and gardens. They have been bred over many years to produce a wide range of forms, in terms of colour, shape and size. They include some of the dwarfest (miniature) cultivars. They are also used for bonsai
Bonsai (; , ) is the Japanese art of Horticulture, growing and shaping miniature trees in containers, with a long documented history of influences and native Japanese development over a thousand years, and with unique aesthetics, cultural hist ...
. Some species found in cultivation include:
*''Juniperus chinensis
''Juniperus chinensis'', the Chinese juniper, is a species of plant in the cypress family Cupressaceae, native to China, Myanmar, Japan, Korea and the Russian Far East. Growing tall, it is a very variable coniferous evergreen tree or shrub.
...
''
*'' Juniperus communis''
*'' Juniperus horizontalis''
*''Juniperus'' × ''pfitzeriana''
*'' Juniperus procumbens''
*'' Juniperus rigida''
*'' Juniperus scopulorum''
*'' Juniperus squamata''
Toxicity
In drier areas, juniper pollen easily becomes airborne and can be inhaled into the lungs. This pollen can also irritate the skin and cause contact dermatitis. Cross-allergenic reactions are common between juniper pollen and the pollen of all species of cypress.
Monoecious juniper plants are highly allergenic, with an Ogren Plant Allergy Scale (OPALS) rating of 9 out of 10. Completely male juniper plants have an OPALS rating of 10, and release abundant amounts of pollen. Conversely, all-female juniper plants have an OPALS rating of 1, and are considered "allergy-fighting".
Uses
Ethnic and herbal use
Most species of juniper are flexible and have a high compression strength-to-weight ratio. This has made the wood a traditional choice for the construction of hunting bows among some of the Native American cultures in the Great Basin region. These bow staves are typically backed with sinew to provide tension strength that the wood may lack.
Ancient Mesopotamians believed that juniper oil could be used to ward off the evil eye
The evil eye is a supernatural belief in a curse brought about by a malevolent glaring, glare, usually inspired by envy. Amulets to Apotropaic, protect against it have been found dating to around 5,000 years ago.
It is found in many cultures i ...
.
Embalming vessels in the burial chambers from a 26th Dynasty embalming workshop at Saqqara have shown the usage of Juniper oil/tar.
Some Indigenous peoples of the Americas
In the Americas, Indigenous peoples comprise the two continents' pre-Columbian inhabitants, as well as the ethnic groups that identify with them in the 15th century, as well as the ethnic groups that identify with the pre-Columbian population of ...
use juniper in traditional medicine
Traditional medicine (also known as indigenous medicine or folk medicine) refers to the knowledge, skills, and practices rooted in the cultural beliefs of various societies, especially Indigenous groups, used for maintaining health and treatin ...
; for instance the Dineh (Navajo), who use it for diabetes
Diabetes mellitus, commonly known as diabetes, is a group of common endocrine diseases characterized by sustained high blood sugar levels. Diabetes is due to either the pancreas not producing enough of the hormone insulin, or the cells of th ...
. Juniper ash has also been historically consumed as a source of calcium
Calcium is a chemical element; it has symbol Ca and atomic number 20. As an alkaline earth metal, calcium is a reactive metal that forms a dark oxide-nitride layer when exposed to air. Its physical and chemical properties are most similar to it ...
by the Navajo people.
Juniper is traditionally used in Scottish folkloric and Gaelic Polytheist saining rites, such as those performed at Hogmanay
Hogmanay ( , ) is the Scots language, Scots word for the last day of the old year and is synonymous with the celebration of the New Year in the Scottish manner. It is normally followed by further celebration on the morning of New Year's Day (1 ...
( New Year), where the smoke of burning juniper, accompanied by traditional prayers and other customary rites, is used to cleanse, bless, and protect the household and its inhabitants.
Local people in Lahaul Valley present juniper leaves to their deities as a folk tradition. It is also useful as a folk remedy for pains and aches, as well as epilepsy
Epilepsy is a group of Non-communicable disease, non-communicable Neurological disorder, neurological disorders characterized by a tendency for recurrent, unprovoked Seizure, seizures. A seizure is a sudden burst of abnormal electrical activit ...
and asthma
Asthma is a common long-term inflammatory disease of the airways of the lungs. It is characterized by variable and recurring symptoms, reversible airflow obstruction, and easily triggered bronchospasms. Symptoms include episodes of wh ...
. They are reported to collect large amounts of juniper leaves and wood for building and religious purposes.
General use
Juniper berries are a spice used in a wide variety of culinary dishes and are best known for the primary flavoring in gin (and responsible for gin's name, which is a shortening of the Dutch word for juniper, ''jenever''). A juniper-based spirit is made by fermenting juniper berries and water to create a "wine" that is then distilled. This is often sold as a juniper brandy in eastern Europe. Juniper berries are also used as the primary flavor in the liquor jenever
Jenever (, ), also known as Hollands, genever, genièvre, peket, or sometimes as Dutch gin (archaic: Holland gin or Geneva gin), is the juniper-flavoured traditional liquor in the Netherlands, Belgium, and adjoining areas in northern France ...
. Juniper berry sauce is often a popular flavoring choice for quail, pheasant
Pheasants ( ) are birds of several genera within the family Phasianidae in the order Galliformes. Although they can be found all over the world in introduced (and captive) populations, the pheasant genera's native range is restricted to Eura ...
, veal, rabbit
Rabbits are small mammals in the family Leporidae (which also includes the hares), which is in the order Lagomorpha (which also includes pikas). They are familiar throughout the world as a small herbivore, a prey animal, a domesticated ...
, venison, and other game dishes.
A tea can be made from the young twigs. Twigs or needles are used to flavour the traditional Finnish junperbeer, sahti as well.
Dense and rot resistant, the irregular trunks of junipers have been used as fence posts and firewood. Stands that produce enough wood for specialty uses generally go under the common name "cedar", including ''Juniperus virginiana'', the "red cedar" that is used widely in cedar drawers and closets. The lack of space or a hyphen between the words "red" and "cedar" is sometimes used to indicate that this species is not a true cedar (''Cedrus
''Cedrus'', with the common English name cedar, is a genus of coniferous trees in the plant family Pinaceae (subfamily Abietoideae). They are native to the mountains of the western Himalayas and the Mediterranean region, occurring at altitud ...
'').
Juniper in weave is a traditional cladding technique used in Northern Europe, e.g. at Havrå, Norway.
Juniper berries are steam distilled to produce an essential oil
An essential oil is a concentrated hydrophobic liquid containing volatile (easily evaporated at normal temperatures) chemical compounds from plants. Essential oils are also known as volatile oils, ethereal oils, aetheroleum, or simply as the ...
that may vary from colorless to yellow or pale green. Some of its chemical components are terpenoid
The terpenoids, also known as isoprenoids, are a class of naturally occurring organic compound, organic chemicals derived from the 5-carbon compound isoprene and its derivatives called terpenes, diterpenes, etc. While sometimes used interchangeabl ...
s and aromatic compounds, such as cadinene, a sesquiterpene
Sesquiterpenes are a class of terpenes that consist of three isoprene units and often have the molecular formula C15H24. Like monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes may be cyclic or contain rings, including many combinations. Biochemical modifications s ...
.
References
Further reading
*Adams, R. P. (2004). ''Junipers of the World: The genus Juniperus''. Victoria: Trafford.
*Farjon, A. (2001). ''World Checklist and Bibliography of Conifers''. Kew.
*Farjon, A. (2005). ''Monograph of Cupressaceae and Sciadopitys''. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.
*
External links
Junipers of the world
Photos of cones and foliage of selected species
*
*
{{Authority control
Juniperus