Jotabeche is a

Miocene The Miocene ( ) is the first epoch (geology), geological epoch of the Neogene Period and extends from about (Ma). The Miocene was named by Scottish geologist Charles Lyell; the name comes from the Greek words (', "less") and (', "new") and mea ...

Pliocene The Pliocene ( ; also Pleiocene) is the epoch (geology), epoch in the geologic time scale that extends from 5.33 to 2.58caldera A caldera ( ) is a large cauldron-like hollow that forms shortly after the emptying of a magma chamber in a volcanic eruption. An eruption that ejects large volumes of magma over a short period of time can cause significant detriment to the str ...

in the Atacama Region of

Chile Chile, officially the Republic of Chile, is a country in western South America. It is the southernmost country in the world and the closest to Antarctica, stretching along a narrow strip of land between the Andes, Andes Mountains and the Paci ...

. It is part of the volcanic

Andes The Andes ( ), Andes Mountains or Andean Mountain Range (; ) are the List of longest mountain chains on Earth, longest continental mountain range in the world, forming a continuous highland along the western edge of South America. The range ...

, more specifically of the extreme southern end of the

Central Volcanic Zone The Andean Volcanic Belt is a major volcanic belt along the Andean cordillera in Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru. It is formed as a result of subduction of the Nazca plate and Antarctic plate underneath the South Americ ...

(CVZ). This sector of the

Andean Volcanic Belt The Andean Volcanic Belt is a major volcanic belt along the Andean cordillera in Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru. It is formed as a result of subduction of the Nazca plate and Antarctic plate underneath the South Americ ...

contains about 44 volcanic centres and numerous more minor volcanic systems, as well as some caldera and

ignimbrite Ignimbrite is a type of volcanic rock, consisting of hardened tuff. Ignimbrites form from the deposits of pyroclastic flows, which are a hot suspension of particles and gases flowing rapidly from a volcano, driven by being denser than the surrou ...

systems. Jotabeche is located in a now inactive segment of the CVZ, the Maricunga Belt. Jotabeche formed from the

subduction Subduction is a geological process in which the oceanic lithosphere and some continental lithosphere is recycled into the Earth's mantle at the convergent boundaries between tectonic plates. Where one tectonic plate converges with a second p ...

of the

Nazca Plate The Nazca plate or Nasca plate, named after the Nazca region of southern Peru, is an oceanic list of tectonic plates, tectonic plate in the eastern Pacific Ocean basin off the west coast of South America. The ongoing subduction, along the Peru– ...

beneath the

South American Plate The South American plate is a major tectonic plate which includes the continent of South America as well as a sizable region of the Atlantic Ocean seabed extending eastward to the African plate, with which it forms the southern part of the Mid ...

, like the other volcanoes in the CVZ and the Andean Volcanic Belt. In the region of Jotabeche, during the late Miocene and Pliocene a change in the subduction geometry has caused volcanism to end, with volcanism shifting eastwards to the

Incapillo Incapillo is a Pleistocene-age caldera (a depression formed by the collapse of a volcano) in the La Rioja Province of Argentina. It is the southernmost volcanic centre in the Andean Central Volcanic Zone (CVZ) that erupted during the Pleistoce ...

volcanic centre. The crust beneath Jotabeche is thick, which has had effects on the rock composition of the volcano. Jotabeche has erupted two major ignimbrites between 8,500,000 and 5,900,000 years ago. The first ignimbrite was the larger one and is named Negro Francisco and the second is called Jotabeche proper. A caldera and some

lava dome In volcanology, a lava dome is a circular, mound-shaped protrusion resulting from the slow extrusion of viscous lava from a volcano. Dome-building eruptions are common, particularly in convergent plate boundary settings. Around 6% of eruptions ...

s are also part of the complex. Volcanism ceased 5 million years ago.

Geography and structure

Jotabeche is located at the extreme southern end of the Central Volcanic Zone (CVZ) of the Andes. The Central Volcanic Zone is one of the four volcanic zones of the Andean Volcanic Belt. In this belt, ongoing subduction of the Antarctic Plate,

and its precursor the Farallon Plate are responsible for ongoing volcanic activity, including such volcanoes as Villarrica and

Nevado del Ruiz Nevado del Ruiz (), also known as La Mesa de Herveo () is a volcano on the border of the departments of Caldas and Tolima in Colombia, being the highest point of both. It is located about west of the capital city Bogotá. It is a stratovolca ...

. The Central Volcanic Zone sub-belt itself contains about 44 volcanic centres and over five major

Quaternary The Quaternary ( ) is the current and most recent of the three periods of the Cenozoic Era in the geologic time scale of the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS), as well as the current and most recent of the twelve periods of the ...

caldera and ignimbrite complexes. The so-called Abancay deflection separates the CVZ in the north from the Peruvian flat subduction segment where no volcanic activity occurs, while the southern limit is marked by a seismic discontinuity around 27° S. Jotabeche is a high volcano with a caldera. A

rhyolitic Rhyolite ( ) is the most silica-rich of volcanic rocks. It is generally glassy or fine-grained (aphanitic) in texture, but may be porphyritic, containing larger mineral crystals ( phenocrysts) in an otherwise fine-grained groundmass. The miner ...

dome formed inside of the caldera. The Jotabeche complex reaches a thickness of when including ignimbrite, lava domes and lavas. The high and wide Jotabeche Norte

stratovolcano A stratovolcano, also known as a composite volcano, is a typically conical volcano built up by many alternating layers (strata) of hardened lava and tephra. Unlike shield volcanoes, stratovolcanoes are characterized by a steep profile with ...

is found northeast of Jotabeche and is surrounded by

pyroclastic flow A pyroclastic flow (also known as a pyroclastic density current or a pyroclastic cloud) is a fast-moving current of hot gas and volcanic matter (collectively known as tephra) that flows along the ground away from a volcano at average speeds of b ...

s. The Santa Cecilia lava domes () have diameters of and sit along a long fault. The Miocene volcanic complex branches out in four chains stretching in east-west direction, the Cadillal, Aguas Blancas, Jotabeche Norte and Cordon de Yeguas Heladas. N-S to NE-SW trending faults border the volcanic complex and have allowed the intrusion of

diorite Diorite ( ) is an intrusive rock, intrusive igneous rock formed by the slow cooling underground of magma (molten rock) that has a moderate content of silica and a relatively low content of alkali metals. It is Intermediate composition, inter ...

porphyries. The resulting hydrothermally altered rocks are the sites of mineral deposits and prospects. These faults include the Yeguas Heladas, Rio La Gallina and Rio Astaburuaga and form a hexagonal structure which partly forms the margin of the caldera. Otherwise, only little erosion has taken place at Jotabeche; stronger erosion though has exposed a > thick hydrothermally altered complex at Aldebaran-Cerro Casale. Other hydrothermally altered areas are found within depressions. The crust beneath Jotabeche reaches a thickness of .

Geology

Jotabeche is a volcanic centre in the 26-6 mya old and long Maricunga belt. Some stratovolcanoes in the belt include Copiapó-Azufre, Cerros Bravos, Doña Inés, La Laguna, Lagunillas, Ojos del Maricunga, Santa Rosa and Cadillal-Yeguas Heladas. Volcanic activity in this belt has also generated

porphyry Porphyry (; , ''Porphyrios'' "purple-clad") may refer to: Geology * Porphyry (geology), an igneous rock with large crystals in a fine-grained matrix, often purple, and prestigious Roman sculpture material * Shoksha porphyry, quartzite of purple c ...

deposits containing

silver Silver is a chemical element; it has Symbol (chemistry), symbol Ag () and atomic number 47. A soft, whitish-gray, lustrous transition metal, it exhibits the highest electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, and reflectivity of any metal. ...

gold Gold is a chemical element; it has chemical symbol Au (from Latin ) and atomic number 79. In its pure form, it is a brightness, bright, slightly orange-yellow, dense, soft, malleable, and ductile metal. Chemically, gold is a transition metal ...

and

copper Copper is a chemical element; it has symbol Cu (from Latin ) and atomic number 29. It is a soft, malleable, and ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. A freshly exposed surface of pure copper has a pinkish-orang ...

. This belt is bordered by

graben In geology, a graben () is a depression (geology), depressed block of the Crust (geology), crust of a planet or moon, bordered by parallel normal faults. Etymology ''Graben'' is a loan word from German language, German, meaning 'ditch' or 't ...

and horst tectonic structures that have generated the Salar de Maricunga and the Laguna del Negro Francisco. Jotabeche is located at the southern end of the Maricunga belt, which was active starting from the

Oligocene The Oligocene ( ) is a geologic epoch (geology), epoch of the Paleogene Geologic time scale, Period that extends from about 33.9 million to 23 million years before the present ( to ). As with other older geologic periods, the rock beds that defin ...

until the Pliocene. The formation of this volcanic belt was influenced by the changes in the subduction of the Nazca Plate, which included the shallowing of the subducting plate and the formation of the Puna plateau. Jotabeche, belonging to the fourth stage of Maricunga belt activity after the third stage of Copiapo, is the youngest eruption of the Maricunga belt, whose activity ended with the Jotabeche caldera forming eruption. Volcanism afterwards shifted eastwards. Jotabeche is one of the largest volcanoes in the Maricunga belt. Volcanic activity at Jotabeche is coeval with the last mineralization phase of the Vallecito system in the El Indio belt.

Local

Jotabeche is part of the so-called Cordillera de Darwin segment of the Andes. The basement in the area consists of various sedimentary-volcanic formations dating back to the

Paleozoic The Paleozoic ( , , ; or Palaeozoic) Era is the first of three Era (geology), geological eras of the Phanerozoic Eon. Beginning 538.8 million years ago (Ma), it succeeds the Neoproterozoic (the last era of the Proterozoic Eon) and ends 251.9 Ma a ...

Chinches formation but also including the

Jurassic The Jurassic ( ) is a Geological period, geologic period and System (stratigraphy), stratigraphic system that spanned from the end of the Triassic Period million years ago (Mya) to the beginning of the Cretaceous Period, approximately 143.1 Mya. ...

Lautaro formation and the

Cretaceous The Cretaceous ( ) is a geological period that lasted from about 143.1 to 66 mya (unit), million years ago (Mya). It is the third and final period of the Mesozoic Era (geology), Era, as well as the longest. At around 77.1 million years, it is the ...

Quebrada de Monardes formation. Of the volcanic formations, the Pantanoso rhyolitic formation of the Paleozoic and the thick andesitic-dacitic lava flows of the mesozoic Rio Aguas Blancas formation are the most important. During the Cretaceous, local extension formed a number of small faults in the area. The oldest of these sequences crops out east of Jotabeche at the Chilean-

Argentine Argentines, Argentinians or Argentineans are people from Argentina. This connection may be residential, legal, historical, or cultural. For most Argentines, several (or all) of these connections exist and are collectively the source of their ...

frontier.

Composition

Jotabeche has generated

rhyodacite Rhyodacite is a volcanic rock intermediate in composition between dacite and rhyolite. It is the extrusive equivalent of those plutonic rocks that are intermediate in composition between monzogranite and granodiorite. Rhyodacites form from rapid ...

rocks. The Negro Francisco ignimbrite is rhyolitic while the Jotabeche ignimbrite itself is of rhyodacitic composition. Specific concentrations are 65–70% for Negro Francisco while the caldera complex has 68–72%. The Jotabeche Norte stratovolcano has a concentration of 60% and is considered to be

hornblende Hornblende is a complex silicate minerals#Inosilicates, inosilicate series of minerals. It is not a recognized mineral in its own right, but the name is used as a general or field term, to refer to a dark amphibole. Hornblende minerals are common ...

andesite Andesite () is a volcanic rock of intermediate composition. In a general sense, it is the intermediate type between silica-poor basalt and silica-rich rhyolite. It is fine-grained (aphanitic) to porphyritic in texture, and is composed predomina ...

in terms of composition. Overall, all rocks fit the

potassium Potassium is a chemical element; it has Symbol (chemistry), symbol K (from Neo-Latin ) and atomic number19. It is a silvery white metal that is soft enough to easily cut with a knife. Potassium metal reacts rapidly with atmospheric oxygen to ...

-rich calc alkaline pattern.

Gold Gold is a chemical element; it has chemical symbol Au (from Latin ) and atomic number 79. In its pure form, it is a brightness, bright, slightly orange-yellow, dense, soft, malleable, and ductile metal. Chemically, gold is a transition metal ...

-rich porphyry deposits are found on Jotabeche's flanks. Diorites are also found but the only weak erosion and thick late Miocene rock cover bury them. Other mineralizations are found between Jotabeche and the Salar de Maricunga. The chemistry of Jotabeche ignimbrites is distinct from other

Tertiary Tertiary (from Latin, meaning 'third' or 'of the third degree/order..') may refer to: * Tertiary period, an obsolete geologic period spanning from 66 to 2.6 million years ago * Tertiary (chemistry), a term describing bonding patterns in organic ch ...

volcanic rocks in the Andes. The rocks of Jotabeche have

lanthanum Lanthanum is a chemical element; it has symbol La and atomic number 57. It is a soft, ductile, silvery-white metal that tarnishes slowly when exposed to air. It is the eponym of the lanthanide series, a group of 15 similar elements bet ...

strontium Strontium is a chemical element; it has symbol Sr and atomic number 38. An alkaline earth metal, it is a soft silver-white yellowish metallic element that is highly chemically reactive. The metal forms a dark oxide layer when it is exposed to ...

and

yttrium Yttrium is a chemical element; it has Symbol (chemistry), symbol Y and atomic number 39. It is a silvery-metallic transition metal chemically similar to the lanthanides and has often been classified as a "rare-earth element". Yttrium is almost a ...

concentrations which fit an eclogitic trend, similar to other Andean volcanoes Pircas Negras, Tortolas and Vallecito. More generally, the geochemistry is indicative of the volcanic activity being influenced both by a thick crust and other factors of crustal contamination. Other composition data are indicative of a drop in mantle

water Water is an inorganic compound with the chemical formula . It is a transparent, tasteless, odorless, and Color of water, nearly colorless chemical substance. It is the main constituent of Earth's hydrosphere and the fluids of all known liv ...

content above the shallowing slab. The crust above the Jotabeche ignimbrite source region was thick enough to permit the stability of

garnet Garnets () are a group of silicate minerals that have been used since the Bronze Age as gemstones and abrasives. Garnet minerals, while sharing similar physical and crystallographic properties, exhibit a wide range of chemical compositions, de ...

in said source region.

Glaciation

Jotabeche does not currently display any perennial snow, only during summer is snow observed in the area. Likewise,

rock glacier Rock glaciers are distinctive geomorphological landforms that consist either of angular rock debris frozen in interstitial ice, former "true" glaciers overlain by a layer of talus, or something in between. Rock glaciers are normally found at hi ...

s are only found as fossil remnants. However,

moraine A moraine is any accumulation of unconsolidated debris (regolith and Rock (geology), rock), sometimes referred to as glacial till, that occurs in both currently and formerly glaciated regions, and that has been previously carried along by a gla ...

s are found at Jotabeche, and

glacier A glacier (; or ) is a persistent body of dense ice, a form of rock, that is constantly moving downhill under its own weight. A glacier forms where the accumulation of snow exceeds its ablation over many years, often centuries. It acquires ...

s advanced north from a

cirque A (; from the Latin word ) is an amphitheatre-like valley formed by Glacier#Erosion, glacial erosion. Alternative names for this landform are corrie (from , meaning a pot or cauldron) and ; ). A cirque may also be a similarly shaped landform a ...

on its northern flank into the Laguna de Negro Francisco, where a peninsula marks the position of the most extensive moraine.

Eruptive history

Jotabeche was active between 7 and 5 mya ago, spanning the late Miocene and Pliocene. The end of volcanic activity at Jotabeche occurred at the same time as the northeastern arm of the Juan Fernandez ridge passed beneath the volcano. After end of activity at Jotabeche volcanism occurred farther east at Incapillo. 15.3 ± 0.8 and 17.2 ± 0.7 mya the Las Gallinas ignimbrite formed east of Jotabeche, but its origin is unknown. The Santa Cecilia domes of Jotabeche were active 24.3 ± 0.7 mya and 24.1 ± 0.8 mya based on potassium-argon dating of an eroded

tuff ring Phreatomagmatic eruptions are volcanic eruptions resulting from interaction between magma and water. They differ from exclusively magmatic eruptions and phreatic eruptions. Unlike phreatic eruptions, the products of phreatomagmatic eruptions cont ...

. Between 18 and 16 mya the Jotabeche Norte stratovolcano was active in the region. Some rhyolitic lava domes intruded into the caldera are 10 mya old. The Negro Francisco ignimbrite was erupted 8.5 mya ago and covers a surface area of around the Laguna del Negro Francisco; it is the initial activity of Jotabeche. 5.9–6.2 mya the Jotabeche ignimbrite covered a surface area of . The Negro Francisco ignimbrite was erupted from a NW-trending fault and flowed between the Jotabeche Norte and La Laguna stratovolcanoes to the Laguna del Negro Francisco depression and across it. The so-called Pircas Negras

andesitic Andesite () is a volcanic rock of intermediate composition. In a general sense, it is the intermediate type between silica-poor basalt and silica-rich rhyolite. It is fine-grained (aphanitic) to porphyritic in texture, and is composed predomina ...

lava flows occur at the same time as the younger Jotabeche activity. Andesitic-dacitic lava domes along the La Gallina fault are of the same age. At Copiapo and Jotabeche, the volcanic activity has been subdivided in three phases, the first being the "normal" volcanic phase, a second phase with a drop in magma supply and the formation of more differentiated magmas in crustal

magma chamber A magma chamber is a large pool of liquid rock beneath the surface of the Earth. The molten rock, or magma, in such a chamber is less dense than the surrounding country rock, which produces buoyant forces on the magma that tend to drive it u ...

s such as rhyolites and at the end the eruption of andesites along fractures. Other volcanoes in the Maricunga belt display different evolutionary processes, probably because of a lesser tectonic influence.

Archeology

Research performed on Jotabeche in the 1980s demonstrated the existence of an Inka

shrine A shrine ( "case or chest for books or papers"; Old French: ''escrin'' "box or case") is a sacred space">-4; we might wonder whether there's a point at which it's appropriate to talk of the beginnings of French, that is, when it wa ...: ''escri ...

on Jotabeche, including a walled platform. People probably climbed the mountain to use it during the southern summer months. Archeological sites in the region are not unknown: Copiapo,

Incahuasi Incahuasi (; possibly from Quechua: ''inka'' Inca, ''wasi'' house) is a volcanic mountain in the Andes of South America. It lies on the border of the Catamarca Province of Argentina and the Atacama Region of Chile. Incahuasi has a summit eleva ...

, Pastillitos and

Los Patos Los Patos (also known as Tres Quebradas) is a mountain in the Andes mountain range of South America. The peak is located on the international border of the Catamarca Province of Argentina and the Atacama Region of Chile. It has a summit elevati ...

also have archeological sites.

References

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Puerto Varas Puerto Varas, also known as "La Ciudad De Las Rosas" or “The City Of Roses”, is a List of cities in Chile, city and Communes of Chile, commune located in the southern Chilean province of Llanquihue Province, Llanquihue, in the Los Lagos Region ...

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External links

*Sergio Gamonal 2015
Volcanic stratigraphy and epithermal mineralization of the La Coipa district, Maricunga belt, Chile
*Alexander Brenning 2005
Climatic and geomorphological controls of rock glaciers in the Andes of Central Chile – combining statistical modelling and field mapping
Miocene calderas Calderas of Chile Pliocene calderas Volcanoes of Atacama Region